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Opt. Soc. Am. A"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Our subjective experience of color is typically described by abstract\n\t\t\t\tproperties such as hue, saturation, and brightness that do not directly\n\t\t\t\tcorrespond to sensory signals arising from cones in the retina. Along the\n\t\t\t\thue dimension, certain colors\u2014red, green, blue, and yellow\u2014appear unique\n\t\t\t\tin that they are not perceived as a combination of other colors, and the\n\t\t\t\tpairs red\u2013green and blue\u2013yellow appear opposites. However, the anatomical\n\t\t\t\tand physiological correlates of these \u201cunique hues\u201d within the brain and\n\t\t\t\tthe reason for their existence remain a mystery. Here, we demonstrate a\n\t\t\t\tdirect connection between these hues and the statistics of the natural\n\t\t\t\tvisual environment. Analysis of simulated cone responses on a dataset of\n\t\t\t\t503 calibrated natural images reveals a strongly non-Gaussian distribution\n\t\t\t\tin 3D color space, with heavy tails in distinct, asymmetrically arranged\n\t\t\t\tdirections. A sparse coding model is then adapted to this data so as to\n\t\t\t\tminimize the total sum of coefficients on the basis vectors for\n\t\t\t\trepresenting the data. A six-basis-vector model converges to the four\n\t\t\t\tunique hues in addition to black and white. Moreover, we find that the\n\t\t\t\tnonlinear nature of inference in the sparse coding model yields both\n\t\t\t\texcitatory and inhibitory interactions among latent variables; the former\n\t\t\t\tfacilitates combining adjacent pairs of unique hues to encode intermediate\n\t\t\t\thues situated between them, while the latter enforces mutual exclusivity\n\t\t\t\tbetween opposite unique hues. Together, these findings shed new light on\n\t\t\t\tthe distribution of color in the natural environment and provide a linking\n\t\t\t\tprinciple between this structure and the phenomenology of color\n\t\t\t\tappearance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1364\/josaa.598897","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T13:00:08Z","timestamp":1781614808000},"page":"1210","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Emergence of unique hues from sparse coding of color in natural scenes"],"prefix":"10.1364","volume":"43","author":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"Belsten","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01an7q238","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"E. 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