{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:36:36Z","timestamp":1785411396721,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"Optica Publishing Group","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775520000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/OA_License_v2#VOR-OA"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775520000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/policies\/opg-tdm-policy.json"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62325505"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62325505"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"},{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62020106014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62020106014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"},{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Innovation Program for Quantum Science and Technology","award":["2021ZD0302103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021ZD0302103"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013317","name":"Key Research and Development Program of Shanxi Province","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["202402150101001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202402150101001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013317","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013317","name":"Key Research and Development Program of Shanxi Province","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["202502090302018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202502090302018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013317","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["opg.optica.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Opt. Express"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Traditional soil settlement monitoring fails to capture dynamic evolution accurately, endangering engineering safety. Here, a fiber Bragg grating-integrated 3D trajectory pipe sensor (SST-3D) is developed for soil settlement strain monitoring, combined with machine learning for loess settlement stage prediction. Air tests verify FBG wavelength shift has a good linear strain relationship; soil burial tests identify four strain response stages during drainage, namely initial rapid response, relative stability, pre-collapse dynamic stage, and post-collapse sustained response. The Frenet frame enables accurate 3D morphological reconstruction of SST-3D in both conditions. Among four machine learning algorithms, Random Forest performs best, with 95.65% classification accuracy for the loess collapse stage and only 4.02% regression relative error. The successful development and experimental verification of the SST-3D sensor has achieved precise perception and dynamic monitoring of the multi-directional settlement morphology of soil.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1364\/oe.589254","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T05:00:10Z","timestamp":1773291610000},"page":"13769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Fiber Bragg grating-integrated soil settlement three-dimensional trajectory pipe sensor: dynamic soil subsidence evolution and stage prediction"],"prefix":"10.1364","volume":"34","author":[{"given":"Lanwei","family":"Xie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miao","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingru","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hanlin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuejiang","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zejia","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7543-4327","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yongming","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5314-6677","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Dandan","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3e3s17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"285","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rsase.2025.101491","type":"journal-article","volume":"37","author":"Long","year":"2025","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114682","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2025.114682","type":"journal-article","volume":"321","author":"Guzy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2025.113676","type":"journal-article","volume":"112","author":"Prosperi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Build Eng."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111231","type":"journal-article","volume":"231","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4538","DOI":"10.1007\/s12205-019-0473-8","type":"journal-article","volume":"23","author":"Qu","year":"2019","journal-title":"KSCE J. Civ Eng."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trgeo.2024.101190","type":"journal-article","volume":"45","author":"Roghani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transp. Geotech."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6250","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-61538-y","type":"journal-article","volume":"16","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geotexmem.2023.05.001","type":"journal-article","volume":"51","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geotext. Geomembr."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2021.104158","type":"journal-article","volume":"117","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.516067","type":"journal-article","volume":"49","author":"Fu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27516","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2024.3429366","type":"journal-article","volume":"24","author":"Choi","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44575","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-28276-z","type":"journal-article","volume":"15","author":"Tocanne","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2025.113340","type":"journal-article","volume":"191","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrmge.2024.10.021","type":"journal-article","volume":"17","author":"Damiano","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yofte.2017.09.003","type":"journal-article","volume":"40","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1109\/MIM.2025.10982090","type":"journal-article","volume":"28","author":"Jiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Instrum. Meas. Mag."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2019.2949151","type":"journal-article","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105918","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2020.105918","type":"journal-article","volume":"280","author":"Leng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tust.2018.04.002","type":"journal-article","volume":"77","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1007\/s11801-023-2192-0","type":"journal-article","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Optoelectron. Lett."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2022.106238","type":"journal-article","volume":"276","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220990","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3042848","type":"journal-article","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"oe-34-8-13769-R23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.131216","type":"journal-article","volume":"378","author":"Liao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build Mater."}],"container-title":["Optics Express"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/viewmedia.cfm?URI=oe-34-8-13769&seq=0","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T13:11:02Z","timestamp":1778677862000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/abstract.cfm?URI=oe-34-8-13769"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/oe.589254","relation":{},"ISSN":["1094-4087"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1094-4087","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Optica Publishing Group","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/OE.589254","name":"articlelink","label":"Crossref DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"research-article","name":"content_type","label":"Article type"},{"value":"Screened by Similarity Check","name":"cross_check","label":"Similarity check"},{"value":"Yes","order":0,"name":"peer_reviewed","label":"Peer reviewed","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"Single blind","order":1,"name":"review_process","label":"Review process","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"7 January 2026","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"8 March 2026","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"7 April 2026","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Optica Publishing Group under the terms of the Optica Open Access Publishing Agreement","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}