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Express"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The scattering characteristics of rough surfaces play a fundamental role in single-photon LiDAR, remote sensing, and optical target characterization. Conventional electromagnetic models describe the underlying optical scattering process, whereas photon-counting statistics and detector response must be modeled separately to describe measurements in the single-photon regime. In this study, a unified simulation model for rough-surface scattering and single-photon detection is developed based on the microfacet model. The model incorporates laser emission, photon propagation, surface scattering, and detector response within a single framework. Surface scattering is determined from the complex relative permittivity, root-mean-square height, and correlation length of the target, while photon absorption, specular reflection, diffuse reflection, and detector response are modeled using the Fresnel equations and photon-counting statistics. Simulations and experiments are performed for different photon transmittance levels, incident angles, material types, and surface roughness. The simulated and experimental scattered-photon distributions exhibit consistent trends and show good overall agreement for both metallic and dielectric targets. The proposed model provides an effective approach for analyzing rough-surface scattering and single-photon detection, offering theoretical support for single-photon LiDAR system design, optical target characterization, and rough-surface analysis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1364\/oe.612550","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T19:04:29Z","timestamp":1790967869000},"page":"38706","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Microfacet-based physics-driven framework for single-photon LiDAR rough-surface scattering and detection"],"prefix":"10.1364","volume":"34","author":[{"given":"Hao","family":"Liao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05s92vm98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanhui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05s92vm98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7696-0891","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Pengfei","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05s92vm98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Zou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05s92vm98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peihao","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05s92vm98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7091-5965","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Lu","family":"Bai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05s92vm98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"285","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"oe-34-20-38706-R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.4.000767","type":"journal-article","volume":"4","author":"Nicodemus","year":"1965","journal-title":"Appl. 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