{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T09:32:18Z","timestamp":1785576738304,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"Optica Publishing Group","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776384000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/policies\/opg-tdm-policy.json"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001870","name":"Foundation for Polish Science","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["FENG.02.01-IP.05-T005\/23"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FENG.02.01-IP.05-T005\/23"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001870","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"},{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/048zd9m77","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004442","name":"National Science Centre","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2024\/53\/B\/ST7\/04225"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024\/53\/B\/ST7\/04225"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004442","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"},{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03ha2q922","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["opg.optica.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Opt. Lett."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Two-photon vision enables perception of near-infrared light through nonlinear absorption in retinal photopigments, showing a quadratic dependency on laser intensity. We measured two- and one-photon visual thresholds for varying beam diameters (with effective NA\u2009=\u20090.02\u20130.09) and defocus levels under dark- and light-adapted conditions. Two-photon visual thresholds varied significantly with beam diameter for stimuli focused on the retina and showed greater sensitivity to defocus than one-photon thresholds, especially at larger NA. While defocus blurs visible stimuli, in two-photon vision, it mainly decreases retinal photon density, reducing brightness without image degradation. These results emphasize, for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, the importance of beam diameter, focus quality, and accurate defocus correction in optimizing two-photon--based visual displays.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1364\/ol.589174","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T11:00:13Z","timestamp":1772794813000},"page":"2428","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Effect of laser-beam diameter on the visibility of two-photon stimuli"],"prefix":"10.1364","volume":"51","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1528-0028","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Zieli\u0144ska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0102mm775","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5821-3610","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Daniel","family":"Rumi\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0102mm775","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2006-0524","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Maciej","family":"Szkulmowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0102mm775","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0599-0878","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Maciej","family":"Wojtkowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0102mm775","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry"},{"name":"Polish Academy of Sciences"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0229-3735","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Komar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0102mm775","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Institute of Physical Chemistry"},{"name":"Polish Academy of Sciences"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"285","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108404","type":"journal-article","volume":"220","author":"Komar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E5445","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1410162111","type":"journal-article","volume":"111","author":"Palczewska","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4551","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.10.004551","type":"journal-article","volume":"10","author":"Ruminski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1167\/jov.23.12.4","type":"journal-article","volume":"23","author":"Doyle","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5818","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.525180","type":"journal-article","volume":"15","author":"Kaczko\u015b","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.489890","type":"journal-article","volume":"14","author":"Marzejon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.411168","type":"journal-article","volume":"12","author":"Marzejon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5603","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.403695","type":"journal-article","volume":"11","author":"Manzanera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1737","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.507240","type":"journal-article","volume":"10","author":"Gil","year":"2023","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.452609","type":"journal-article","volume":"13","author":"Stachowiak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4767","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.575139","type":"journal-article","volume":"16","author":"Emmerich","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.62.15.23","type":"journal-article","volume":"62","author":"Zieli\u0144ska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1488","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.4.001488","type":"journal-article","volume":"4","author":"Artal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R15","first-page":"1495","type":"journal-article","volume":"64","author":"Kaczko\u015b","year":"2023","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.581133","type":"journal-article","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.9.8.7","type":"journal-article","volume":"9","author":"\u0141abuz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Vis. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-05718-6","type":"journal-article","volume":"12","author":"\u0141abuz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0000000000003032","type":"journal-article","volume":"41","author":"\u0141abuz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Retina"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12030760","type":"journal-article","volume":"12","author":"\u0141abuz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diagnostics"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt899","type":"journal-article","volume":"21","author":"Zipfel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R22","first-page":"15","author":"Kaschke","year":"2014"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2010","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.20.002010","type":"journal-article","volume":"20","author":"Donnelly","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1167\/11.5.6","type":"journal-article","volume":"11","author":"Roorda","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(95)00225-1","type":"journal-article","volume":"36","author":"Miller","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2884","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.14.002884","type":"journal-article","volume":"14","author":"Liang","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.10.000405","type":"journal-article","volume":"10","author":"Roorda","year":"2002","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2628","DOI":"10.3928\/1081-597X-20020901-27","type":"journal-article","volume":"18","author":"Fern\u00e1ndez","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Refract. Surg"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.6.000948","type":"journal-article","volume":"6","author":"Vinas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2017.01.006","type":"journal-article","volume":"132","author":"Marcos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0144891","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0144891","type":"journal-article","volume":"10","author":"Sabesan","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ol-51-9-2428-R32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.902920402","type":"journal-article","volume":"292","author":"Curcio","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."}],"container-title":["Optics Letters"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/viewmedia.cfm?URI=ol-51-9-2428&seq=0","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T14:45:09Z","timestamp":1778683509000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-51-9-2428"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/ol.589174","relation":{},"ISSN":["0146-9592","1539-4794"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0146-9592","type":"print"},{"value":"1539-4794","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Optica Publishing Group","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/OL.589174","name":"articlelink","label":"Crossref DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"letter","name":"content_type","label":"Article type"},{"value":"Screened by Similarity Check","name":"cross_check","label":"Similarity check"},{"value":"Yes","order":0,"name":"peer_reviewed","label":"Peer reviewed","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"Single blind","order":1,"name":"review_process","label":"Review process","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"9 January 2026","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"5 March 2026","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"17 April 2026","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"Published by Optica Publishing Group under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article\u2019s title, journal citation, and DOI.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}