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Lett."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Flexible optical force sensors have shown great potential in human\u2013computer interaction (HCI), health monitoring, and wearable devices. However, conventional optical force-sensing systems typically require separate light sources and photodetectors, leading to bulky system architectures and low integration. This work presents a multi-directional millinewton sensor based on a GaN monolithically integrated optoelectronic chip and a flexible optoelectronic tactile device (FOTD). The chip integrates one micro-scale multi-quantum-well (MQW) transmitter and four-quadrant MQW receivers on the same substrate, enabling compact on-chip integration of light emission and detection. The FOTD uses a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) structure as an elastic substrate, with an embedded optical fiber for light routing and force transmission. The device exhibits a system-level sensitivity of 4.5 \u03bcA\/N over 0\u2013250\u2009mN, a response time of 80\u2009ms, and a force resolution of 3\u2009mN. It can achieve multi-directional force tactile sensing\u2014including normal force (Z), tangential force (X-Y), and oblique forces (45\u00b0). Furthermore, real-time four-directional control in a Snake game is demonstrated as a proof of concept. With its integrated design and excellent repeatability, this sensor provides a promising solution for wearable electronics, gesture recognition, and interactive control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1364\/ol.610970","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T12:00:08Z","timestamp":1787659208000},"page":"5253","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multi-directional millinewton force sensing for human\u2013computer interaction based on an optoelectronic-integrated flexible tactile device"],"prefix":"10.1364","volume":"51","author":[{"given":"Jiawei","family":"Shi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043bpky34","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dongyun","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043bpky34","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaqi","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043bpky34","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qihang","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043bpky34","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2460-5832","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jiabin","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043bpky34","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2691-6688","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jiafeng","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongbo","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8109-4640","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yongjin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043bpky34","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0717-2441","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Fan","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/043bpky34","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"285","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ol-51-18-5253-R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.153382","type":"journal-article","volume":"495","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. 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All rights, including for text and data mining (TDM), Artificial Intelligence (AI) training, and similar technologies, are reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}