{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T00:36:48Z","timestamp":1780619808637,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,24]],"date-time":"2010-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1277337600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.ploscompbiol.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Comput Biol"],"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000809","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,24]],"date-time":"2010-06-24T16:18:58Z","timestamp":1277396338000},"page":"e1000809","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["The Roots of Bioinformatics"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"David B.","family":"Searls","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","article-title":"The structure of scientific revolutions","author":"TS Kuhn","year":"1962"},{"key":"ref2","article-title":"Human understanding: the collective use and evolution of concepts","author":"SE Toulmin","year":"1972"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226360492.001.0001","article-title":"Science as a process: an evolutionary account of the social and conceptual development of science","author":"DL Hull","year":"1988"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1145\/1118178.1118215","article-title":"Computational thinking.","volume":"49","author":"JM Wing","year":"2006","journal-title":"Commun ACM"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1038\/419343a","article-title":"Cells as computation.","volume":"419","author":"A Regev","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226300610.001.0001","article-title":"Theory and reality: an introduction to the philosophy of science","author":"P Godfrey-Smith","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref7","article-title":"Philosophy of natural science","author":"CG Hempel","year":"1966"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gene.2008.03.010","article-title":"What is a gene? An updated operational definition.","volume":"417","author":"G Pesole","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref9","article-title":"The philosophy of science: a contemporary introduction. 2nd edition","author":"S Rosenberg","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref10","first-page":"85","article-title":"Gene.","author":"PE Griffiths","year":"2007"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/118.1.1","article-title":"A diamond anniversary: the first chromosomal map.","volume":"118","author":"JF Crow","year":"1988","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s11017-006-9020-y","article-title":"Genes in the post-genomic era.","volume":"27","author":"PE Griffiths","year":"2006","journal-title":"Theor Med Bioeth"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.6339607","article-title":"What is a gene, post-ENCODE? History and updated definition.","volume":"17","author":"MB Gerstein","year":"2007","journal-title":"Genome Res"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9525(01)02383-6","article-title":"From controlling elements to transposons: Barbara McClintock and the Nobel Prize.","volume":"17","author":"NC Comfort","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Genet"},{"key":"ref15","article-title":"Francis Galton: pioneer of heredity and biometry","author":"MG Bulmer","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref16","article-title":"The genetical theory of natural selection. Variorum edition, 2000","author":"RA Fisher","year":"1930"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.2307\/3001780","article-title":"Gene frequencies in a cline determined by selection and diffusion.","volume":"6","author":"RA Fisher","year":"1950","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref18","article-title":"The preparation of programs for an electronic digital computer","author":"MV Wilkes","year":"1951"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024479322226","article-title":"The statistical frame of mind in systematic biology from quantitative zoology to biometry.","volume":"36","author":"J Hagen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Hist Biol"},{"key":"ref20","article-title":"General system theory: foundations, development, applications","author":"L von Bertalanffy","year":"1968"},{"key":"ref21","article-title":"Cybernetics: or control and communication in the animal and the machine","author":"N Weiner","year":"1948"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1037\/h0046049","article-title":"Structural balance: a generalization of Heider&apos;s theory.","volume":"63","author":"D Cartwright","year":"1956","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"ref23","article-title":"On growth and form. Canto edition, 1992","author":"D'AW Thompson","year":"1917"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1952.0012","article-title":"The chemical basis of morphogenesis.","volume":"237","author":"AM Turing","year":"1952","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci"},{"key":"ref25","first-page":"1397","article-title":"The Turing model comes of molecular age.","volume":"314","author":"PK Maini","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref26","article-title":"The essential Turing: seminal writings in computing, logic, philosophy, artificial intelligence, and artificial life plus the secrets of enigma.","author":"AM Turing","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref27","article-title":"AM Turing&apos;s notes on morphogenesis, contributed by NE Hoskin.","year":"1978"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3495(61)86917-8","article-title":"On the origin of macromolecular sequences.","volume":"1","author":"HH Pattee","year":"1961","journal-title":"Biophys J"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-5193(63)90064-X","article-title":"Molecular algorithms.","volume":"5","author":"WR Stahl","year":"1963","journal-title":"J Theor Biol"},{"key":"ref30","article-title":"Alan Turing: the enigma","author":"A Hodges","year":"1992"},{"key":"ref31","article-title":"An algebra for theoretical genetics [PhD thesis].","author":"CE Shannon","year":"1940"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/159.3.915","article-title":"Shannon&apos;s brief foray into genetics.","volume":"159","author":"JF Crow","year":"2001","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref33","article-title":"What is life? the physical aspect of the living cell","author":"E Shr\u00f6dinger","year":"1946"},{"key":"ref34","article-title":"Letter from G. Gamow to J. D. Watson and F. H. Crick.","author":"G Gamow","year":"1953"},{"key":"ref35","article-title":"One two three\u2026infinity","author":"G Gamow","year":"1947"},{"key":"ref36","article-title":"The eight day of creation: the makers of the revolution in biology","author":"HF Judson","year":"1979"},{"key":"ref37","article-title":"What mad pursuit: a personal view of scientific discovery","author":"FH Crick","year":"1990"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1038\/173318a0","article-title":"Possible relation between deoxyribonucleic acid and protein structures.","volume":"173","author":"G Gamow","year":"1954","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref39","article-title":"Letter from G. Gamow to M. Ycas.","author":"G Gamow","year":"1954"},{"key":"ref40","article-title":"Metropolis, Monte Carlo, and the MANIAC.","author":"HL Anderson","year":"1986"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.41.12.1011","article-title":"Statistical correlation of protein and ribonucleic acid composition.","volume":"41","author":"G Gamow","year":"1955","journal-title":"Proc Nat Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1126\/science.122.3167.465","article-title":"Study of tumor cell populations by Monte Carlo methods.","volume":"122","author":"JG Hoffman","year":"1955","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref43","first-page":"175","article-title":"Digital computer studies of cell multiplication by Monte Carlo methods.","volume":"17","author":"V Gardiner","year":"1956","journal-title":"J Natl Cancer Inst"},{"key":"ref44","article-title":"Who wrote the book of life? a history of the genetic code","author":"LE Kay","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.41.7.498","article-title":"Digital computational methods in symbolic logic, with examples in biochemistry.","volume":"41","author":"RS Ledley","year":"1955","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/16.1.5","article-title":"Earliest pages of bioinformatics.","volume":"16","author":"EN Trifinov","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1511\/1998.17.3338","article-title":"The invention of the genetic code.","volume":"86","author":"B Hayes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am Sci"},{"key":"ref48","article-title":"The mathematical theory of communication","author":"CE Shannon","year":"1949"},{"key":"ref49","article-title":"Photo of Marshall Nirenberg&apos;s laboratory notebook. In Deciphering the genetic code: Marshall Nirenberg [online exhibit].","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/28.6.491","article-title":"Mutations of bacteria from virus sensitivity to virus resistance.","volume":"28","author":"SE Luria","year":"1943","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg795","article-title":"Genealogical trees, coalescent theory and the analysis of genetic polymorphisms.","volume":"3","author":"NA Rosenberg","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat Rev Genet"},{"key":"ref52","article-title":"The unity of science","author":"R Carnap","year":"1934"},{"key":"ref53","article-title":"The web of belief","author":"WV Quine","year":"1970"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C968","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00598.2004","article-title":"The end of \u201cna\u00efve reductionism\u201d: rise of systems biology or renaissance of physiology?","volume":"288","author":"K Strange","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Cell Physiol"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1107\/S0108767307051355","article-title":"Busting out of crystallography&apos;s Sisyphean prison: from pencil and paper to structure solving at the press of a button.","volume":"A64","author":"LMD Cranswick","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Crystallogr"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1107\/S0365110X52000228","article-title":"The computation of Fourier syntheses with a digital electronic calculating machine.","volume":"5","author":"JM Bennett","year":"1952","journal-title":"Acta Crystallogr"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1107\/S0365110X53002180","article-title":"Crystallographic calculations on the Manchester University electronic digital computer (Mark II).","volume":"6","author":"FR Ahmed","year":"1953","journal-title":"Acta Crystallogr"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1038\/181662a0","article-title":"A three-dimensional model of the myoglobin molecule obtained by X-ray analysis.","volume":"181","author":"JC Kendrew","year":"1958","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0666-42","article-title":"Molecular model-building by computer.","volume":"214","author":"C Levinthal","year":"1966","journal-title":"Sci Am"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ede.0000229955.07579.f0","article-title":"Genomics and proteomics in epidemiology: treasure trove or \u201chigh-tech stamp collecting\u201d?","volume":"17","author":"DJ Hunter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-1809.1958.tb01429.x","article-title":"The estimation of linkage by an electronic computer.","volume":"22","author":"HR Simpson","year":"1958","journal-title":"Ann Hum Genet"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-005-0049-1","article-title":"Linkage methods in human genetics before the computer.","volume":"118","author":"AWF Edwards","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hum Genet"},{"key":"ref63","article-title":"Tempo and mode in evolution","author":"GG Simpson","year":"1944"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/13500-000","article-title":"Quantitative zoology: numerical concepts and methods in the study of recent and fossil animals","author":"GG Simpson","year":"1939"},{"key":"ref65","first-page":"300","article-title":"Notes on the measurement of faunal resemblance.","volume":"258A","author":"GG Simpson","year":"1960","journal-title":"Am J Sci"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1038\/163688a0","article-title":"Measurement of diversity.","volume":"163","author":"EH Simpson","year":"1949","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref67","first-page":"36","article-title":"Information theory in ecology.","volume":"3","author":"R Margalef","year":"1958","journal-title":"Gen Syst"},{"key":"ref68","first-page":"201","article-title":"The application of computers to taxonomy.","volume":"17","author":"PHA Sneath","year":"1957","journal-title":"J Gen Microbiol"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-19-3-551","article-title":"An electro-taxonomic survey of bacteria.","volume":"19","author":"PHA Sneath","year":"1958","journal-title":"J Gen Microbiol"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1126\/science.132.3434.1115","article-title":"A computer program for classifying plants.","volume":"132","author":"DJ Rogers","year":"1960","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1126\/science.126.3278.814","article-title":"Finding chemical records by digital computers.","volume":"126","author":"LC Ray","year":"1957","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref72","article-title":"Principles of numerical taxonomy","author":"RR Sokal","year":"1963"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-8486(01)00005-X","article-title":"The introduction of computers into systematic research in the United States during the 1960s.","volume":"32","author":"JB Hagen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Stud Hist Phil Biol & Biomed Sci"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1093\/sysbio\/44.3.281","article-title":"Thirty years of numerical taxonomy.","volume":"44","author":"PHA Sneath","year":"1995","journal-title":"Systematic Biol"},{"key":"ref75","article-title":"Rudolf Carnap.","author":"M Murzi","year":"2001"}],"container-title":["PLoS Computational Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000809","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,29]],"date-time":"2021-10-29T23:39:49Z","timestamp":1635550789000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000809"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,24]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,24]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000809","relation":{"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3410\/f.720907324.793532065","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1553-7358"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1553-7358","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,6,24]]}}}