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This likely depends on our becoming better able to take advantage of ever richer and temporally deeper predictive relationships in the environment. Here, we offer a novel characterization of this process, fitting a non-parametric, hierarchical Bayesian sequence model to the reaction times of human participants\u2019 responses over ten sessions, each comprising thousands of trials, in a serial reaction time task involving higher-order dependencies. The model, adapted from the domain of language, forgetfully updates trial-by-trial, and seamlessly combines predictive information from shorter and longer windows onto past events, weighing the windows proportionally to their predictive power. As the model implies a posterior over window depths, we were able to determine how, and how many, previous sequence elements influenced individual participants\u2019 internal predictions, and how this changed with practice.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Already in the first session, the model showed that participants had begun to rely on two previous elements (i.e., trigrams), thereby successfully adapting to the most prominent higher-order structure in the task. The extent to which local statistical fluctuations in trigram frequency influenced participants\u2019 responses waned over subsequent sessions, as participants forgot the trigrams less and evidenced skilled performance. By the eighth session, a subset of participants shifted their prior further to consider a context deeper than two previous elements. Finally, participants showed resistance to interference and slow forgetting of the old sequence when it was changed in the final sessions. Model parameters for individual participants covaried appropriately with independent measures of working memory and error characteristics. In sum, the model offers the first principled account of the adaptive complexity and nuanced dynamics of humans\u2019 internal sequence representations during long-term implicit skill learning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1009866","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T13:43:50Z","timestamp":1669815830000},"page":"e1009866","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Tracking human skill learning with a hierarchical Bayesian sequence model"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2507-0999","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"No\u00e9mi","family":"\u00c9ltet\u0151","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9629-5856","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Dezs\u0151","family":"Nemeth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Karolina","family":"Janacsek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3476-1839","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Peter","family":"Dayan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]},"reference":[{"issue":"38","key":"pcbi.1009866.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10073","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2747-07.2007","article-title":"The serial reaction time task: implicit motor skill learning?","volume":"27","author":"EM Robertson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1009866.ref002","first-page":"458","article-title":"Statistical learning of higher-order temporal structure from visual shape sequences","volume":"28","author":"J Fiser","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"issue":"5294","key":"pcbi.1009866.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1926","DOI":"10.1126\/science.274.5294.1926","article-title":"Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants","volume":"274","author":"JR Saffran","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1009866.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327078IN0402_07","article-title":"From syllables to syntax: multilevel statistical learning by 12-month-old infants","volume":"4","author":"JR Saffran","year":"2003","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"key":"pcbi.1009866.ref005","article-title":"Word recognition: Context effects without priming","author":"D Norris","year":"1986","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1009866.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1177\/002383097902200301","article-title":"Contextual probability and word frequency as determinants of pauses and errors in spontaneous speech","volume":"22","author":"GW Beattie","year":"1979","journal-title":"Language and speech"},{"key":"pcbi.1009866.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e68066","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.68066","article-title":"An oscillating computational model can track pseudo-rhythmic speech by using linguistic predictions","volume":"10","author":"S Ten Oever","year":"2021","journal-title":"Elife"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1009866.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(87)90002-8","article-title":"Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures","volume":"19","author":"MJ Nissen","year":"1987","journal-title":"Cognitive psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1009866.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196171","article-title":"Can sequence learning be implicit? 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