{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T10:24:04Z","timestamp":1767176644856,"version":"build-2238731810"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1010080","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,8]],"date-time":"2022-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1654646400000}}],"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]],"date-time":"2022-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100019217","name":"IVADO","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["postdoctoral fellowship award"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["postdoctoral fellowship award"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100019217","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"NSERC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["RGPIN-2016-05245"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN-2016-05245"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000156","name":"Fonds de Recherche du Qu\u00e9bec - Sant\u00e9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LAJGU0401-253188"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LAJGU0401-253188"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000156","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"NSERC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["RGPIN- 925 2018-04821"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN- 925 2018-04821"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Canada CIFAR AI Chair program"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.ploscompbiol.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Comput Biol"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Finding the right amount of deliberation, between insufficient and excessive, is a hard decision making problem that depends on the value we place on our time. Average-reward, putatively encoded by tonic dopamine, serves in existing reinforcement learning theory as the opportunity cost of time, including deliberation time. Importantly, this cost can itself vary with the environmental context and is not trivial to estimate. Here, we propose how the opportunity cost of deliberation can be estimated adaptively on multiple timescales to account for non-stationary contextual factors. We use it in a simple decision-making heuristic based on average-reward reinforcement learning (AR-RL) that we call\n                    <jats:italic>Performance-Gated Deliberation<\/jats:italic>\n                    (PGD). We propose PGD as a strategy used by animals wherein deliberation cost is implemented directly as urgency, a previously characterized neural signal effectively controlling the speed of the decision-making process. We show PGD outperforms AR-RL solutions in explaining behaviour and urgency of non-human primates in a context-varying random walk prediction task and is consistent with relative performance and urgency in a context-varying random dot motion task. We make readily testable predictions for both neural activity and behaviour.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1010080","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]],"date-time":"2022-05-26T13:56:52Z","timestamp":1653573412000},"page":"e1010080","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Performance-gated deliberation: A context-adapted strategy in which urgency is opportunity cost"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8211-6503","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Maximilian","family":"Puelma Touzel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Cisek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2730-7291","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Guillaume","family":"Lajoie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1010080.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.2307\/1883711","article-title":"Pain-Cost and Opportunity-Cost","volume":"8","author":"DI Green","year":"1894","journal-title":"The Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"pcbi.1010080.ref002","first-page":"162","volume":"46","author":"N Kolling","year":"2017","journal-title":"(Reinforcement?) 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Available from: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2010.08920."},{"issue":"11","key":"pcbi.1010080.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2567","DOI":"10.1162\/089976602760407973","article-title":"Long-term reward prediction in TD models of the dopamine system","volume":"14","author":"ND Daw","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neural computation"},{"key":"pcbi.1010080.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2021.05.001","article-title":"Context-sensitive valuation and learning","volume":"41","author":"LE Hunter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences"},{"key":"pcbi.1010080.ref007","unstructured":"Niv Y, Daw N, Dayan P. How fast to work: Response vigor, motivation and tonic dopamine. In: Weiss Y, Sch\u00f6lkopf B, Platt J, editors. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. vol. 18. MIT Press; 2005. 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