{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T22:27:21Z","timestamp":1773872841585,"version":"3.50.1"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1010642","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]],"date-time":"2022-11-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668038400000}}],"reference-count":104,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,31]],"date-time":"2022-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667174400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004189","name":"Max-Planck-Gesellschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004189","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005156","name":"Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005156","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.ploscompbiol.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Comput Biol"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Paying attention to particular aspects of the world or being more vigilant in general can be interpreted as forms of \u2018internal\u2019 action. Such arousal-related choices come with the benefit of increasing the quality and situational appropriateness of information acquisition and processing, but incur potentially expensive energetic and opportunity costs. One implementational route for these choices is widespread ascending neuromodulation, including by acetylcholine (ACh). The key computational question that elective attention poses for sensory processing is when it is worthwhile paying these costs, and this includes consideration of whether sufficient information has yet been collected to justify the higher signal-to-noise ratio afforded by greater attention and, particularly if a change in attentional state is more expensive than its maintenance, when states of heightened attention ought to persist. We offer a partially observable Markov decision-process treatment of optional attention in a detection task, and use it to provide a qualitative model of the results of studies using modern techniques to measure and manipulate ACh in rodents performing a similar task.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1010642","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,31]],"date-time":"2022-10-31T13:52:35Z","timestamp":1667224355000},"page":"e1010642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Vigilance, arousal, and acetylcholine: Optimal control of attention in a simple detection task"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3354-7091","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sahiti","family":"Chebolu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3476-1839","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Peter","family":"Dayan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7744-7562","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kevin","family":"Lloyd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref001","volume-title":"The Psychology of Vigilance","author":"DR Davies","year":"1982"},{"issue":"9","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2006.01.017","article-title":"Vigilance, alertness, or sustained attention: Physiological basis and measurement","volume":"117","author":"BS Oken","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1006\/cogp.1995.1002","article-title":"On the nature of streaks in signal detection","volume":"28","author":"DL Gilden","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008X312152","article-title":"Vigilance requires hard mental work and is stressful","volume":"50","author":"JS Warm","year":"2008","journal-title":"Human Factors"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13318","article-title":"Recent theoretical, neural, and clinical advances in sustained attention research","volume":"1396","author":"FC Fortenbaugh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1080\/17470214808416738","article-title":"The breakdown of vigilance during prolonged visual search","volume":"1","author":"NH Mackworth","year":"1948","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref007","volume-title":"Decision and Stress","author":"DE Broadbent","year":"1971"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1037\/h0041823","article-title":"Drives and the C.N.S. (Conceptual Nervous System)","volume":"62","author":"DO Hebb","year":"1955","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref009","first-page":"473","volume-title":"Handbook of Experimental Psychology","author":"DB Lindsley","year":"1951"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1037\/h0025896","article-title":"Vigilance, arousal, and habituation","volume":"75","author":"JF Mackworth","year":"1968","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"issue":"5","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1037\/h0048837","article-title":"The psychological significance of the concept of \u201carousal\u201d or \u201cactivation\u201d","volume":"64","author":"E Duffy","year":"1957","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02246109","article-title":"Behavioral vigilance in rats: Task validation and effects of age, amphetamine, and benzodiazepine receptor ligands","volume":"117","author":"J McGaughy","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dayan P, Zemel RS. Statistical models and sensory attention. In: Ninth International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks. vol. 2. IET; 1999. p. 1017\u20131022.","DOI":"10.1049\/cp:19991246"},{"issue":"22","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2010.04.014","article-title":"Selective Bayes: Attentional load and crowding","volume":"50","author":"P Dayan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.07.007","article-title":"The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate function","volume":"79","author":"A Shenhav","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-072116-031526","article-title":"Toward a rational and mechanistic account of mental effort","volume":"40","author":"A Shenhav","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annual Review of Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2019.03.005","article-title":"Models of sustained attention","volume":"29","author":"M Esterman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Psychology"},{"issue":"11","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2015.08.013","article-title":"Deciding how to decide: Self-control and meta-decision making","volume":"19","author":"YL Boureau","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X12003196","article-title":"An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance","volume":"36","author":"R Kurzban","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behavioral and Brain Sciences"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref020","first-page":"221","volume-title":"The Attentive Brain","author":"R Parasuraman","year":"1998"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-002-1154-7","article-title":"The 5-choice serial reaction time task: Behavioural pharmacology and functional neurochemistry","volume":"163","author":"T Robbins","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-0511(96)05222-2","article-title":"Arousal systems and attentional processes","volume":"45","author":"TW Robbins","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biological Psychology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709","article-title":"An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: Adaptive gain and optimal performance","volume":"28","author":"G Aston-Jones","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annual Review of Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.09.027","article-title":"Twenty-five lessons from computational neuromodulation","volume":"76","author":"P Dayan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2005.04.026","article-title":"Uncertainty, neuromodulation, and attention","volume":"46","author":"AJ Yu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"4\u20136","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref026","first-page":"719","article-title":"Acetylcholine in cortical inference","volume":"15","author":"AJ Yu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neural Networks"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7044.110.2.247","article-title":"Behavioral vigilance following infusions of 192 IgG-saporin into the basal forebrain: Selectivity of the behavioral impairment and relation to cortical AChE-positive fiber density","volume":"110","author":"J McGaughy","year":"1996","journal-title":"Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7044.112.6.1519","article-title":"Sustained attention performance in rats with intracortical infusions of 192 IgG-saporin-induced cortical cholinergic deafferentation: Effects of physostigmine and FG 7142","volume":"112","author":"J McGaughy","year":"1998","journal-title":"Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"issue":"5","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-05-01905.2002","article-title":"Selective behavioral and neurochemical effects of cholinergic lesions produced by intrabasalis infusions of 192 IgG-saporin on attentional performance in a five-choice serial reaction time task","volume":"22","author":"J McGaughy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"issue":"8","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1089","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1516134113","article-title":"Cortical cholinergic signaling controls the detection of cues","volume":"113","author":"HJ Gritton","year":"2016","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2018.12.026","article-title":"Cholinergic double duty: Cue detection and attentional control","volume":"29","author":"M Sarter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Psychology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2010.104","article-title":"Modes and models of forebrain cholinergic neuromodulation of cognition","volume":"36","author":"ME Hasselmo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"issue":"20","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8742","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5809-12.2013","article-title":"Prefrontal cholinergic mechanisms instigating shifts from monitoring for cues to cue-guided performance: Converging electrochemical and fMRI evidence from rats and humans","volume":"33","author":"WM Howe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1-2","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/S0004-3702(98)00023-X","article-title":"Planning and acting in partially observable stochastic domains","volume":"101","author":"LP Kaelbling","year":"1998","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1037\/h0041428","article-title":"A variable sensitivity theory of signal detection","volume":"70","author":"RC Atkinson","year":"1963","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref036","first-page":"748","article-title":"Optimal decision-making with time-varying evidence reliability","volume":"27","author":"J Drugowitsch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"issue":"37","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11560","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1844-09.2009","article-title":"Decisions in changing conditions: The urgency gating model","volume":"29","author":"P Cisek","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e63436","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.63436","article-title":"Optimal policy for attention-modulated decisions explains human fixation behavior","volume":"10","author":"AI Jang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23787","DOI":"10.3386\/w23787","volume-title":"Rational inattention and sequential information sampling","author":"B H\u00e9bert","year":"2017"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2012.05.011","article-title":"How to set the switches on this thing","volume":"22","author":"P Dayan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Neurobiology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00114727","article-title":"Average reward reinforcement learning: Foundations, algorithms, and empirical results","volume":"22","author":"S Mahadevan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Machine Learning"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref042","volume-title":"Reinforcement learning: An introduction","author":"RS Sutton","year":"1998"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1287\/opre.39.1.162","article-title":"Computationally feasible bounds for partially observed Markov decision processes","volume":"39","author":"WS Lovejoy","year":"1991","journal-title":"Operations Research"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref044","first-page":"1577","article-title":"Inference, attention, and decision in a Bayesian neural architecture","volume":"17","author":"AJ Yu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1080\/09548980601004024","article-title":"Phasic norepinephrine: A neural interrupt signal for unexpected events","volume":"17","author":"P Dayan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Network"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.09.038","article-title":"Neural variability and sampling-based probabilistic representations in the visual cortex","volume":"92","author":"G Orb\u00e1n","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"9","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3495","article-title":"Probabilistic brains: Knowns and unknowns","volume":"16","author":"A Pouget","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1305-19.2019","article-title":"Forebrain cholinergic signaling: Wired and phasic, not tonic, and causing behavior","volume":"40","author":"M Sarter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.01.060","article-title":"The input-output relationship of the cholinergic basal forebrain","volume":"18","author":"MR Gielow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Reports"},{"issue":"44","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9446","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1676-18.2018","article-title":"Specific basal forebrain-cortical cholinergic circuits coordinate cognitive operations","volume":"38","author":"L Z\u00e1borszky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref051","volume-title":"Signal Detection Theory and Psychophysics","author":"D Green","year":"1966"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref052","volume-title":"Detection theory: A user\u2019s guide (2nd edition)","author":"NA MacMillan","year":"2005"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2287","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000019","article-title":"Reward reveals dissociable aspects of sustained attention","volume":"143","author":"M Esterman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.3389\/neuro.09.004.2009","article-title":"Combined effects of attention and motivation on visual task performance: Transient and sustained motivational effects","volume":"3","author":"JB Engelmann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"issue":"8","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref055","first-page":"4022","article-title":"Modulating reward induces differential neurocognitive approaches to sustained attention","volume":"27","author":"M Esterman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"issue":"7","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0159741","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0159741","article-title":"Anticipation of monetary reward can attenuate the vigilance decrement","volume":"11","author":"M Esterman","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2016.07.019","article-title":"Rewards boost sustained attention through higher effort: A value-based decision making approach","volume":"120","author":"SA Massar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biological Psychology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.85.2.59","article-title":"A theory of memory retrieval","volume":"85","author":"R Ratcliff","year":"1978","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113038","article-title":"The neural basis of decision making","volume":"30","author":"JI Gold","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annual Reviews Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3932(03)00029-1","article-title":"Implications of rational inattention","volume":"50","author":"CA Sims","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Monetary Economics"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref061","first-page":"w26415","article-title":"Rational inattention when decisions take time","author":"B H\u00e9bert","year":"2019","journal-title":"National Bureau of Economic Research"},{"issue":"7","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2183","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20140117","article-title":"Revealed preference, rational inattention, and costly information acquisition","volume":"105","author":"A Caplin","year":"2015","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1008659","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1008659","article-title":"Rational inattention and tonic dopamine","volume":"17","author":"JG Mikhael","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLOS Computational Biology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-006-0502-4","article-title":"Tonic dopamine: Opportunity costs and the control of response vigor","volume":"191","author":"Y Niv","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.09.035","article-title":"Chemistry of the adaptive mind: Lessons from dopamine","volume":"104","author":"R Cools","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"13","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2015.05.038","article-title":"Reward pays the cost of noise reduction in motor and cognitive control","volume":"25","author":"SG Manohar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Current Biology"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.12.029","article-title":"Dopamine does double duty in motivating cognitive effort","volume":"89","author":"A Westbrook","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"6484","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaz5891","article-title":"Dopamine promotes cognitive effort by biasing the benefits versus costs of cognitive work","volume":"367","author":"A Westbrook","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"26","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9760","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1902-11.2011","article-title":"Enhanced control of attention by stimulating mesolimbic-corticopetal cholinergic circuitry","volume":"31","author":"M St Peters","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00468","article-title":"The attentional drift diffusion model of simple perceptual decision-making","volume":"11","author":"G Tavares","year":"2017","journal-title":"Frontiers in Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780199675111.001.0001","article-title":"Time for the fourth dimension in attention","volume-title":"The Oxford Handbook of Attention","author":"AC Nobre","year":"2014"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.3.279","article-title":"Scalar expectancy theory and Weber\u2019s law in animal timing","volume":"84","author":"J Gibbon","year":"1977","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref073","first-page":"299","article-title":"Detection, discrimination, and recognition","volume":"2","author":"RD Luce","year":"1974","journal-title":"Handbook of Perception"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1005916","article-title":"Interrupting behaviour: Minimizing decision costs via temporal commitment and low-level interrupts","volume":"14","author":"K Lloyd","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLOS Computational Biology"},{"issue":"11","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2005.09.002","article-title":"Network reset: A simplified overarching theory of locus coeruleus noradrenaline function","volume":"28","author":"S Bouret","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends in Neurosciences"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9914","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2446-04.2004","article-title":"Phasic activation of monkey locus coeruleus neurons by simple decisions in a forced-choice task","volume":"24","author":"E Clayton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2863","DOI":"10.1162\/neco.2008.03-07-487","article-title":"Optimization of decision making in multilayer networks: The role of the locus coeruleus","volume":"20","author":"E Shea-Brown","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neural Computation"},{"issue":"1-2","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(98)00117-6","article-title":"Phasic activation of the locus coeruleus enhances responses of primary sensory cortical neurons to peripheral receptive field stimulation","volume":"790","author":"BD Waterhouse","year":"1998","journal-title":"Brain Research"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1857","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3552","article-title":"Fast modulation of visual perception by basal forebrain cholinergic neurons","volume":"16","author":"L Pinto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"issue":"10","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2007.12.022","article-title":"The role of early visual cortex in visual short-term memory and visual attention","volume":"49","author":"S Offen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-012-9287-9","article-title":"Synergistic tonic and phasic activity of the locus coeruleus norepinephrine (LC-NE) arousal system is required for optimal attentional performance","volume":"27","author":"FM Howells","year":"2012","journal-title":"Metabolic Brain Disease"},{"issue":"11","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1432","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1790","article-title":"Bayesian inference with probabilistic population codes","volume":"9","author":"WJ Ma","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(00)80380-3","article-title":"Differential regulation of neocortical synapses by neuromodulators and activity","volume":"19","author":"Z Gil","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"1-2","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(00)02766-9","article-title":"Differential modulation of auditory thalamocortical and intracortical synaptic transmission by cholinergic agonist","volume":"880","author":"CY Hsieh","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain Research"},{"issue":"10","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3597","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.1999.00779.x","article-title":"Acetylcholine suppresses the spread of excitation in the visual cortex revealed by optical recording: Possible differential effect depending on the source of input","volume":"11","author":"F Kimura","year":"1999","journal-title":"European Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.093008.100427","article-title":"A taxonomy of external and internal attention","volume":"62","author":"MM Chun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2004.08.006","article-title":"Unraveling the attentional functions of cortical cholinergic inputs: Interactions between signal-driven and cognitive modulation of signal detection","volume":"48","author":"M Sarter","year":"2005","journal-title":"Brain Research Reviews"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref088","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Society for Neuroscience Abstracts","author":"LA Holley","year":"1995"},{"issue":"5","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.07.057","article-title":"Central cholinergic neurons are rapidly recruited by reinforcement feedback","volume":"162","author":"B Hangya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-020-0648-0","article-title":"Distinct synchronization, cortical coupling and behavioral function of two basal forebrain cholinergic types","volume":"23","author":"T Laszlovszky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"issue":"14","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3769","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5251-07.2008","article-title":"Glutamatergic contributions to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist-evoked cholinergic transients in the prefrontal cortex","volume":"28","author":"V Parikh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3545","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.14744","article-title":"Phasic cholinergic signaling promotes emergence of local gamma rhythms in excitatory-inhibitory networks","volume":"52","author":"Y Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"European Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1009235","article-title":"Theta-gamma coupling emerges from spatially heterogeneous cholinergic modulation","author":"Y Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLOS Computational Biology"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2015.00176","article-title":"Dissociation between mental fatigue and motivational state during prolonged mental activity","volume":"9","author":"M Gergelyfi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(03)00028-7","article-title":"Task switching","volume":"7","author":"S Monsell","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2016.02.008","article-title":"What do phasic cholinergic signals do?","volume":"130","author":"M Sarter","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurobiology of Learning and Memory"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2007.08.025","article-title":"Prefrontal acetylcholine release controls cue detection on multiple timescales","volume":"56","author":"V Parikh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-021-01007-z","article-title":"Mice alternate between discrete strategies during perceptual decision-making","volume":"25","author":"ZC Ashwood","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref099","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2012.11.011","article-title":"Cortical circuits for the control of attention","volume":"23","author":"EK Miller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Neurobiology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1037\/1528-3542.7.3.668","article-title":"Motivation Sharpens Exogenous Spatial Attention","volume":"7","author":"JB Engelmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"pcbi.1010642.ref101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2013.03.019","article-title":"Reward and aversion in a heterogeneous midbrain dopamine system","volume":"76","author":"S Lammel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"issue":"5","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2018.07.037","article-title":"The locus coeruleus is a complex and differentiated neuromodulatory system","volume":"99","author":"NK Totah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.07.043","article-title":"Anatomically defined and functionally distinct dorsal raphe serotonin sub-systems","volume":"175","author":"J Ren","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1010642.ref104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(85)90302-1","article-title":"Cholecystokinin innervation of the ventral striatum: A morphological and radioimmunological study","volume":"14","author":"L Z\u00e1borszky","year":"1985","journal-title":"Neuroscience"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1010642","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]],"date-time":"2022-11-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668038400000}}],"container-title":["PLOS Computational Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1010642","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,10]],"date-time":"2022-11-10T13:46:57Z","timestamp":1668088017000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1010642"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Christoph","family":"Mathys","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,31]]},"references-count":104,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,31]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1010642","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1101\/2022.02.20.481204","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1553-7358"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1553-7358","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,31]]}}}