{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T18:33:15Z","timestamp":1777487595022,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]],"date-time":"2025-11-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763337600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["12ZP120N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12ZP120N"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["G0B4222N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G0B4222N"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.ploscompbiol.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Comput Biol"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Physics-based simulation generate movement patterns based on a neuro-musculoskeletal model without relying on experimental movement data, offering a powerful approach to study how neuro-musculoskeletal properties shape locomotion. Yet, simulated gait patterns and metabolic powers do not always agree with experiments, pointing to modeling errors reflecting gaps in our understanding. Here, we systematically evaluated the predictive capability of simulations based on a 3D musculoskeletal model to predict gait mechanics, muscle activity, and metabolic power across gait conditions. We simulated the effect of adding mass to body segments, variations in walking speed, inclined walking, and crouched walking. We chose tasks that are relatively straightforward to model to limit the contribution of errors in modeling the task to prediction errors. The simulations predicted stride frequency and walking kinematics with reasonable accuracy but underestimated variation in metabolic power across conditions. In particular, simulations underestimated changes in metabolic power with respect to level walking in tasks requiring substantial positive mechanical work, such as incline walking (27% underestimation). We identified two possible errors in simulated metabolic power. First, the phenomenological metabolic power model produced high maximal mechanical efficiency (average 0.58) during concentric contractions, compared to the observed 0.2\u20130.3 in laboratory experiments. Second, when we multiplied the mechanical work with more realistic estimates of mechanical efficiency (i.e., 0.25), simulations overestimated the metabolic power by 84%. This suggests that positive work by muscle fibers was overestimated in the simulations. This overestimation may be caused by several assumptions and errors in (the parameters of) the musculoskeletal model including its interaction with the environment or in the cost function. This study highlights the need for more accurate models of musculoskeletal mechanics, energetics, passive elastic structures, and neural control (e.g., optimality criteria) to improve the realism of human movement simulations. Validating simulations across a broad range of conditions is important to pinpoint shortcomings in model-based simulations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012713","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]],"date-time":"2025-11-17T18:31:18Z","timestamp":1763404278000},"page":"e1012713","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Benchmarking the predictive capability of human gait simulations"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9120-7925","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Maarten","family":"Afschrift","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dinant","family":"Kistemaker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maarten","family":"Bobbert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Friedl","family":"De Groote","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2009.12.012","article-title":"Optimality principles for model-based prediction of human gait","volume":"43","author":"M Ackermann","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"issue":"54","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2009.0544","article-title":"Fifteen observations on the structure of energy-minimizing gaits in many simple biped models","volume":"8","author":"M Srinivasan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2021.04.020","article-title":"Validation of forward simulations to predict the effects of bilateral plantarflexor weakness on gait","volume":"87","author":"NFJ Waterval","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref004","first-page":"123","article-title":"Predictive musculoskeletal simulation using optimal control: effects of added limb mass on energy cost and kinematics of walking and running","volume":"226","author":"AJ van den Bogert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc Inst Mech Eng Part P J Sports Eng Technol"},{"issue":"11","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(81)90035-X","article-title":"A physiologically based criterion of muscle force prediction in locomotion","volume":"14","author":"RD Crowninshield","year":"1981","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"issue":"6695","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1038\/29528","article-title":"Signal-dependent noise determines motor planning","volume":"394","author":"CM Harris","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2019.08.019","article-title":"Inverse dynamic estimates of muscle recruitment and joint contact forces are more realistic when minimizing muscle activity rather than metabolic energy or contact forces","volume":"74","author":"A Zargham","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"7","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1688","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.05-07-01688.1985","article-title":"The coordination of arm movements: an experimentally confirmed mathematical model","volume":"5","author":"T Flash","year":"1985","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"issue":"7072","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04113","article-title":"Computer optimization of a minimal biped model discovers walking and running","volume":"439","author":"M Srinivasan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"157","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20190402","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2019.0402","article-title":"Rapid predictive simulations with complex musculoskeletal models suggest that diverse healthy and pathological human gaits can emerge from similar control strategies","volume":"16","author":"A Falisse","year":"2019","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"issue":"16","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3493","DOI":"10.1113\/JP270228","article-title":"A neural circuitry that emphasizes spinal feedback generates diverse behaviours of human locomotion","volume":"593","author":"S Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franks PW, Bianco NA, Bryan GM, Hicks JL, Delp SL, Collins SH. Testing Simulated Assistance Strategies on a Hip-Knee-Ankle Exoskeleton: a Case Study. In: 2020 8th IEEE RAS\/EMBS International Conference for Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BioRob) [Internet]. New York City, NY, USA: IEEE; 2020 [cited 2023 Oct 4]. p. 700\u20137. Available from: https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9224345\/","DOI":"10.1109\/BioRob49111.2020.9224345"},{"issue":"843","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref013","first-page":"136","article-title":"The heat of shortening and the dynamic constants of muscle","volume":"126","author":"AV Hill","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc R Soc Lond Ser B - Biol Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(03)00239-2","article-title":"A phenomenological model for estimating metabolic energy consumption in muscle contraction","volume":"37","author":"LJ Bhargava","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"issue":"50","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2010.0084","article-title":"Stance and swing phase costs in human walking","volume":"7","author":"BR Umberger","year":"2010","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2023.111669","article-title":"Advances in understanding the energetics of muscle contraction","volume":"156","author":"CJ Barclay","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"issue":"9","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0222037","article-title":"Metabolic cost calculations of gait using musculoskeletal energy models, a comparison study","volume":"14","author":"AD Koelewijn","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2014.01.049","article-title":"A comparison of muscle energy models for simulating human walking in three dimensions","volume":"47","author":"RH Miller","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2021.110530","article-title":"Evaluating cost function criteria in predicting healthy gait","volume":"123","author":"K Veerkamp","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.16756","article-title":"Transfemoral limb loss modestly increases the metabolic cost of optimal control simulations of walking","volume":"12","author":"RH Miller","year":"2024","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256311","article-title":"Modeling toes contributes to realistic stance knee mechanics in three-dimensional predictive simulations of walking","volume":"17","author":"A Falisse","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"11","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1940","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2007.901024","article-title":"OpenSim: open-source software to create and analyze dynamic simulations of movement","volume":"54","author":"SL Delp","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Biomed Eng"},{"issue":"10","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-013-1076-z","article-title":"A real-time system for biomechanical analysis of human movement and muscle function","volume":"51","author":"AJ van den Bogert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med Biol Eng Comput"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1999.82.2.515","article-title":"Locomotor strategy for pedaling: muscle groups and biomechanical functions","volume":"82","author":"CC Raasch","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"10","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2922","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-016-1591-9","article-title":"Evaluation of Direct Collocation Optimal Control Problem Formulations for Solving the Muscle Redundancy Problem","volume":"44","author":"F De Groote","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann Biomed Eng"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.piutam.2011.04.023","article-title":"Simbody: multibody dynamics for biomedical research","volume":"2","author":"MA Sherman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia IUTAM"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1137\/1.9780898718577.ch4","article-title":"The optimal control problem.","volume-title":"Practical Methods for Optimal Control and Estimation Using Nonlinear Programming","author":"JT Betts","year":"2010","edition":"2"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref028","first-page":"1","article-title":"CasADi: a software framework for nonlinear optimization and optimal control","author":"JAE Andersson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Math Program Comput"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Hondt L, Gupta D, Van Den Bosch B, Buurke TJW, Afschrift M, Febrer-Nafr\u00eda M, et al. PREDSIM: A framework for rapid predictive simulations of locomotion: XIX International Symposium On Computer Simulations In Biomechanics. 2023.","DOI":"10.1109\/BioRob60516.2024.10719735"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s10107-004-0559-y","article-title":"On the implementation of an interior-point filter line-search algorithm for large-scale nonlinear programming","volume":"106","author":"A W\u00e4chter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Math Program"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1249\/mss.0b013e31802b3562","article-title":"The effects of adding mass to the legs on the energetics and biomechanics of walking","volume":"39","author":"RC Browning","year":"2007","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2014.04.009","article-title":"Metabolic rate of carrying added mass: a function of walking speed, carried mass and mass location","volume":"45","author":"E Schertzer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl Ergon"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref033","article-title":"Mechanics and energetics of load carriage during human walking","author":"TP Huang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Exp Biol"},{"issue":"1985","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20221189","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2022.1189","article-title":"Humans trade off whole-body energy cost to avoid overburdening muscles while walking","volume":"289","author":"KA McDonald","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc R Soc B Biol Sci"},{"issue":"9","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref035","article-title":"Economical Speed and Energetically Optimal Transition Speed Evaluated by Gross and Net Oxygen Cost of Transport at Different Gradients","volume":"10","author":"D Abe","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2021.09.196","article-title":"Gait on slopes: Differences in temporo-spatial, kinematic and kinetic gait parameters between walking on a ramp and on a treadmill","volume":"91","author":"G Strutzenberger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.12129","article-title":"Adaptations to changing speed, load, and gradient in human walking: cost of transport, optimal speed, and pendulum","volume":"24","author":"NA Gome\u00f1uka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Scand J Med Sci Sports"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-022-01817-1","article-title":"A biomechanics dataset of healthy human walking at various speeds, step lengths and step widths","volume":"9","author":"TJ van der Zee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Data"},{"issue":"11","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0295152","article-title":"AddBiomechanics: Automating model scaling, inverse kinematics, and inverse dynamics from human motion data through sequential optimization","volume":"18","author":"K Werling","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref040","first-page":"339","article-title":"Positive and negative work performances and their efficiencies in human locomotion","volume":"25","author":"R Margaria","year":"1968","journal-title":"Int Z Angew Physiol"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.023267","article-title":"The relationships between muscle, external, internal and joint mechanical work during normal walking","volume":"212","author":"K Sasaki","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Exp Biol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/1025584031000091678","article-title":"A model of human muscle energy expenditure","volume":"6","author":"BR Umberger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1974.sp010685","article-title":"The relation of oxygen intake and speed in competition cycling and comparative observations on the bicycle ergometer","volume":"241","author":"LG Pugh","year":"1974","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1975.38.6.1132","article-title":"Muscular efficiency during steady-rate exercise: effects of speed and work rate","volume":"38","author":"GA Gaesser","year":"1975","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schenau GJvI, Bobbert MF, de Haan A. Does Elastic Energy Enhance Work and Efficiency in the Stretch-Shortening Cycle? 1997 [cited 2024 Sep 27]. Available from: https:\/\/journals.humankinetics.com\/view\/journals\/jab\/13\/4\/article-p389.xml","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.13.4.389"},{"issue":"8","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref046","article-title":"The metabolic cost of in vivo constant muscle force production at zero net mechanical work","volume":"222","author":"TJ van der Zee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Exp Biol"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00236687","article-title":"Determination and interpretation of mechanical power in human movement: application to ergometer cycling","volume":"61","author":"GJ van Ingen Schenau","year":"1990","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref048","author":"RT Vos","year":"2025","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"issue":"5","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1392310","article-title":"Dynamic optimization of human walking","volume":"123","author":"FC Anderson","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Biomech Eng"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0197428","article-title":"Experimental estimation of energy absorption during heel strike in human barefoot walking","volume":"13","author":"PM Baines","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"18","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.239889","article-title":"Soft tissue deformations explain most of the mechanical work variations of human walking","volume":"224","author":"TJ van der Zee","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Exp Biol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012219","article-title":"A dynamic foot model for predictive simulations of human gait reveals causal relations between foot structure and whole-body mechanics","volume":"20","author":"L D\u2019Hondt","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"key":"pcbi.1012713.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4018","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.107656","article-title":"Musculoskeletal modelling deconstructs the paradoxical effects of elastic ankle exoskeletons on plantar-flexor mechanics and energetics during hopping","volume":"217","author":"DJ Farris","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Exp Biol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14652","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-65183-1","article-title":"Experiment-guided tuning of muscle\u2013tendon parameters to estimate muscle fiber lengths and passive forces","volume":"14","author":"I Luis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2013.01.008","article-title":"Energy cost of force production is reduced after active stretch in skinned muscle fibres","volume":"46","author":"V Joumaa","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/s11044-011-9277-4","article-title":"Muscle decomposition and recruitment criteria influence muscle force estimates","volume":"28","author":"LJ Holmberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Multibody Syst Dyn"},{"issue":"8","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1080\/10255842.2019.1601179","article-title":"Optimal control simulation predicts effects of midsole materials on energy cost of running","volume":"22","author":"E Dorschky","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-021-00943-y","article-title":"Optimized hip-knee-ankle exoskeleton assistance at a range of walking speeds","volume":"18","author":"GM Bryan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neuroeng Rehabil"},{"issue":"58","key":"pcbi.1012713.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abf1078","article-title":"How adaptation, training, and customization contribute to benefits from exoskeleton assistance","volume":"6","author":"KL Poggensee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Robot"}],"container-title":["PLOS Computational Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012713","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]],"date-time":"2025-11-17T18:31:33Z","timestamp":1763404293000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012713"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Fabian","family":"Spill","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012713","relation":{},"ISSN":["1553-7358"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1553-7358","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]]}}}