{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T02:03:12Z","timestamp":1771034592856,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]],"date-time":"2025-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747180800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004189","name":"Max-Planck-Gesellschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004189","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100023029","name":"Fulbright Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100023029","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005156","name":"Humboldt Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005156","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000006","name":"Office of Naval Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N00014-21-1-2170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N00014-21-1-2170"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000006","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Sloan School of Management"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.ploscompbiol.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Comput Biol"],"abstract":"<jats:p>From the intimate realm of personal interactions to the sprawling arena of political discourse, discerning the trustworthy from the dubious is crucial. Here, we present a novel behavioral task and accompanying Bayesian models that allow us to study key aspects of this learning process in a tightly controlled setting. In our task, participants are confronted with several different types of (mis-)information sources, ranging from ones that lie to ones with biased reporting, and have to learn these attributes under varying degrees of feedback. We formalize inference in this setting as a doubly Bayesian learning process where agents simultaneously learn about the ground truth as well as the qualities of an information source reporting on this ground truth. Our model and detailed analyses reveal how participants can generally follow Bayesian learning dynamics, highlighting a basic human ability to learn about diverse information sources. This learning is also reflected in explicit trust reports about the sources. We additionally show how participants approached the inference problem with priors that held sources to be helpful. Finally, when outside feedback was noisier, participants still learned along Bayesian lines but struggled to pick up on biases in information. Our work pins down computationally the generally impressive human ability to learn the trustworthiness of information sources while revealing minor fault lines when it comes to noisier environments and news sources with a slant.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012814","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]],"date-time":"2025-05-14T17:49:31Z","timestamp":1747244971000},"page":"e1012814","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Mechanisms of mistrust: A Bayesian account of misinformation learning"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1841-1273","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Lion","family":"Schulz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yannick","family":"Streicher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Schulz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rahul","family":"Bhui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Dayan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]},"reference":[{"issue":"12","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2021.09.002","article-title":"The computational challenge of social learning","volume":"25","author":"O FeldmanHall","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-019-0590-x","article-title":"Resolving uncertainty in a social world","volume":"3","author":"O FeldmanHall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-020-0276-4","article-title":"The neural and computational systems of social learning","volume":"21","author":"A Olsson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2015.12.007","article-title":"Who knows? Metacognitive social learning strategies","volume":"20","author":"C Heyes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12374","article-title":"How good is your evidence and how would you know?","volume":"10","author":"U Hahn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Top Cogn Sci"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5773","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-020-02595-2","article-title":"Formal models of source reliability","volume":"198","author":"C Merdes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Synthese"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000960","article-title":"The role of decision confidence in advice-taking and trust formation","volume":"150","author":"N Pescetelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12388","article-title":"Integrating incomplete information with imperfect advice","volume":"11","author":"N V\u00e9lez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Top Cogn Sci"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gentzkow M, Shapiro JM, Stone DF. Media bias in the marketplace. In: Handbook of media economics. North-Holland; 2015. p. 623\u201345.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-63685-0.00014-0"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjz033","article-title":"Complementary information and learning traps*","volume":"135","author":"A Liang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Quart J Econ"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref011","unstructured":"J\u00f8sang A, Ismail R. The beta reputation system. In: Proceedings of the 15th bled electronic commerce conference. vol. 5; 2002. p. 2502\u201311. Available from: http:\/\/databases.si.umich.edu\/reputations\/"},{"issue":"5","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3236008","article-title":"Survey on computational trust and reputation models","volume":"51","author":"DDS Braga","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACM Comput Surv"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref013","article-title":"Emphasizing publishers does not effectively reduce susceptibility to misinformation on social media","author":"N Dias","year":"2020","journal-title":"HKS Misinfo Review"},{"issue":"5","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2021.02.007","article-title":"The psychology of fake news","volume":"25","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-018-0360-1","article-title":"The evidence for motivated reasoning in climate change preference formation","volume":"9","author":"JN Druckman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature Clim Change"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orchinik R, Dubey R, Gershman SJ, Powell D, Bhui R. Learning from and about climate scientists; 2023. Available from: https:\/\/osf.io\/preprints\/psyarxiv\/ezua5\/","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/ezua5"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12186","article-title":"Rational irrationality: modeling climate change belief polarization using Bayesian networks","volume":"8","author":"J Cook","year":"2016","journal-title":"Top Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0250264","article-title":"Development and validation of a self-report measure of epistemic trust","volume":"16","author":"C Campbell","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579421000092","article-title":"Culture and psychopathology: an attempt at reconsidering the role of social learning","volume":"34","author":"P Fonagy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dev Psychopathol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167219858641","article-title":"I should have known better: development of a self-report measure of gullibility","volume":"46","author":"AK Teunisse","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pers Soc Psychol Bull"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1080\/08946566.2018.1564105","article-title":"Credulity rather than general trust may increase vulnerability to fraud in older adults: a moderated mediation model","volume":"31","author":"J Shao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Elder Abuse Negl"},{"issue":"10","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2060","DOI":"10.1111\/jasp.12158","article-title":"Why do individuals respond to fraudulent scam communications and lose money? The psychological determinants of scam compliance","volume":"43","author":"P Fischer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Appl Soc Pyschol"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2022.07.009","article-title":"Increased persuadability and credulity in people with corpus callosum dysgenesis","volume":"155","author":"JM Barnby","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02547.x","article-title":"The persuasiveness of source credibility: a critical review of five decades\u2019 evidence","volume":"34","author":"C Pornpitakpan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Appl Soc Pyschol"},{"issue":"7","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2521","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1806781116","article-title":"Fighting misinformation on social media using crowdsourced judgments of news source quality","volume":"116","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"9","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref026","article-title":"High level of correspondence across different news domain quality rating sets","volume":"2","author":"H Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"PNAS Nexus"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref027","article-title":"Knowing whom to learn from: individual differences in metacognition and weighting of social information","author":"K Olsen","year":"2019","journal-title":"PsyArXiv"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400826537","volume-title":"On bullshit","author":"HG Frankfurt","year":"2005"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/13757.001.0001","volume-title":"Deliberate Ignorance: Choosing Not to Know","author":"R Hertwig","year":"2021"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1162\/opmi_a_00097","article-title":"A (Dis-)information theory of revealed and unrevealed preferences: emerging deception and skepticism via theory of mind","volume":"7","author":"N Alon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Open Mind (Camb)"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1037\/dec0000123","article-title":"Paradoxical effects of persuasive messages.","volume":"7","author":"R Bhui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Decision"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0001277","article-title":"Designing and detecting lies by reasoning about other agents","volume":"152","author":"LA Oey","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"issue":"9","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1954","article-title":"Learning the value of information in an uncertain world","volume":"10","author":"TEJ Behrens","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1656","DOI":"10.1093\/jeea\/jvaa051","article-title":"How do people choose between biased information sources? Evidence from a laboratory experiment","volume":"19","author":"G Charness","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Eur Econ Assoc"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1086\/499414","article-title":"Media bias and reputation","volume":"114","author":"M Gentzkow","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Polit Econ"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref036","unstructured":"Jo D. Better the Devil You Know: An Online Field Experiment on News Consumption. 2020."},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref037","unstructured":"Hu L, Kovach M, Li A. Learning news bias: misspecifications and consequences; 2023. Available from: http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2309.08740."},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1162\/003355305775097542","article-title":"A measure of media bias","volume":"120","author":"T Groseclose","year":"2005","journal-title":"Quart J Econ"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1037\/dec0000088","article-title":"Reasoning about social sources to learn from actions and outcomes.","volume":"6","author":"D Hawthorne-Madell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Decision"},{"issue":"9","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1003810","article-title":"Inferring on the intentions of others by hierarchical Bayesian learning","volume":"10","author":"AO Diaconescu","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-02314-5","article-title":"Neural computations underpinning the strategic management of influence in advice giving","volume":"8","author":"U Hertz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"1961","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref042","first-page":"20211414","article-title":"Trusting and learning from others: immediate and long-term effects of learning from observation and advice","volume":"288","author":"U Hertz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc Biol Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1002\/bdm.2109","article-title":"Metacognitive myopia and the overutilization of misleading advice","volume":"32","author":"K Fiedler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav Decis Making"},{"issue":"10","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-018-0425-1","article-title":"Beliefs about bad people are volatile","volume":"2","author":"JZ Siegel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1607032113","article-title":"Spatial heterogeneity of climate change as an experiential basis for skepticism","volume":"114","author":"RK Kaufmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2021.02.009","article-title":"Motivated reasoning and climate change","volume":"42","author":"R Bayes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Opin Behav Sci"},{"issue":"8","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000298","article-title":"The heart trumps the head: Desirability bias in political belief revision","volume":"146","author":"BM Tappin","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2021.104810","article-title":"Confidence, advice seeking and changes of mind in decision making","volume":"215","author":"N Pescetelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"14","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aay3539","article-title":"Evaluating the fake news problem at the scale of the information ecosystem","volume":"6","author":"J Allen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Adv"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref050","unstructured":"Marchal N, Kollanyi B, Neudert LM, Howard PN. Junk news during the EU parliamentary elections: lessons from a seven-language study of Twitter and Facebook. University of Oxford; 2019."},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Altay S, Lyons B, Modirrousta-Galian A. Exposure to higher rates of false news erodes media trust and fuels skepticism in news judgment; 2023. Available from: https:\/\/psyarxiv.com\/t9r43\/","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/t9r43"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-020-0850-9","article-title":"The dual evolutionary foundations of political ideology","volume":"4","author":"S Claessens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2015.11.002","article-title":"Forming beliefs: why valence matters","volume":"20","author":"T Sharot","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797619828724","article-title":"Causal inference about good and bad outcomes","volume":"30","author":"HM Dorfman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-2070(98)00073-9","article-title":"Combining forecasts: what information do judges need to outperform the simple average?","volume":"15","author":"I Fischer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int J Forecast"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1539-6924.1993.tb01329.x","article-title":"Perceived risk, trust, and democracy","volume":"13","author":"P Slovic","year":"1993","journal-title":"Risk Anal"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.50.1.131","article-title":"On the confirmability and disconfirmability of trait concepts.","volume":"50","author":"M Rothbart","year":"1986","journal-title":"J Personal Soc Psychol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444820969893","article-title":"Why do so few people share fake news? It hurts their reputation","volume":"24","author":"S Altay","year":"2020","journal-title":"New Media Soc"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2021.02.015","article-title":"Resource-rational decision making","volume":"41","author":"R Bhui","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Opin Behav Sci"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.49547","article-title":"Ten simple rules for the computational modeling of behavioral data","volume":"8","author":"RC Wilson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2015.02.009","article-title":"The three R\u2019s of trust","volume":"3","author":"P Read Montague","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr Opin Behav Sci"},{"issue":"49","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31527","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2009641117","article-title":"Dogmatism manifests in lowered information search under uncertainty","volume":"117","author":"L Schulz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"24","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2018.10.053","article-title":"Metacognitive failure as a feature of those holding radical beliefs","volume":"28","author":"M Rollwage","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zmigrod L, Eisenberg I, Bissett P, Robbins TW, Poldrack R. A data-driven analysis of the cognitive and perceptual attributes of ideological attitudes. 2020; (April 2020). doi: 10.31234\/osf.io\/dgaxr","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/dgaxr"},{"issue":"19","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1708960115","article-title":"Cognitive underpinnings of nationalistic ideology in the context of Brexit","volume":"115","author":"L Zmigrod","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref066","article-title":"Lateral reading: college students learn to critically evaluate internet sources in an online course","author":"J Breakstone","year":"2021","journal-title":"HKS Misinfo Rev"},{"issue":"5","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.54501\/jots.v1i5.100","article-title":"Displaying news source trustworthiness ratings reduces sharing intentions for false news posts","volume":"1","author":"T Celadin","year":"2023","journal-title":"JOTS"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref068","unstructured":"Asch SE. Effects of group pressure on the modification and distortion of judgments. In: Guetzkow H, editor. Groups, leadership and men. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press; 1951. p. 177\u201390."},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.2307\/2082796","article-title":"Information aggregation, rationality, and the condorcet jury theorem","volume":"90","author":"D Austen-Smith","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am Polit Sci Rev"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nitzan S. Collective preference and choice. Cambridge University Press; 2009.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511803871"},{"issue":"2","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000365","article-title":"The role of a \u201ccommon is moral\u201d heuristic in the stability and change of moral norms","volume":"147","author":"B Lindstr\u00f6m","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2019.04.010","article-title":"Theory of mind as inverse reinforcement learning","volume":"29","author":"J Jara-Ettinger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr Opin Behav Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00076512","article-title":"Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?","volume":"1","author":"D Premack","year":"1978","journal-title":"Behav Brain Sci"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref074","unstructured":"Barnby JM, Bellucci G, Alon N, Schilbach L, Bell V, Frith C, et al.. Beyond theory of mind: a formal framework for social inference and representation; 2023. Available from: https:\/\/osf.io\/preprints\/psyarxiv\/cmgu7\/"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107488","article-title":"Theory of mind and decision science: Towards a typology of tasks and computational models","volume":"146","author":"T Rusch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"issue":"8","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2016.05.011","article-title":"The Na\u00efve utility calculus: computational principles underlying commonsense psychology","volume":"20","author":"J Jara-Ettinger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.1579","article-title":"A framework for sequential planning in multi-agent settings","volume":"24","author":"PJ Gmytrasiewicz","year":"2005","journal-title":"JAIR"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.10.3.103","article-title":"Cheap talk","volume":"10","author":"J Farrell","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Econ Perspect"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alon N, Schulz L, Dayan P, Barnby JM. Between prudence and paranoia: theory of mind gone right, and wrong. In: ICML 2023 Workshop on Theory of Mind in Communicating Agents. 2023.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/kh5c4"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2022.12.004","article-title":"Formalising social representation to explain psychiatric symptoms","volume":"27","author":"JM Barnby","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691618803647","article-title":"The dark side of information proliferation","volume":"14","author":"TT Hills","year":"2019","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2014.10.004","article-title":"Exploration versus exploitation in space, mind, and society","volume":"19","author":"TT Hills","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-019-0793-1","article-title":"How people decide what they want to know","volume":"4","author":"T Sharot","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"issue":"3","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000401","article-title":"Metacognitive computations for information search: confidence in control","volume":"130","author":"L Schulz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"12","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-018-0078-0","article-title":"Towards a neuroscience of active sampling and curiosity","volume":"19","author":"J Gottlieb","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"issue":"11","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2013.09.001","article-title":"Information-seeking, curiosity, and attention: computational and neural mechanisms","volume":"17","author":"J Gottlieb","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2022.105264","article-title":"Flexible use of confidence to guide advice requests","volume":"230","author":"N Carlebach","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2018.11.003","article-title":"The algorithmic architecture of exploration in the human brain","volume":"55","author":"E Schulz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurobiol"},{"issue":"11","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000466","article-title":"The limits of learning: exploration, generalization, and the development of learning traps","volume":"147","author":"AS Rich","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"key":"pcbi.1012814.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dayan P, Roiser JP, Viding E. The first steps on long marches: the costs of active observation. In: Savulescu J, Roache R, Davies W, Loebel JP, Davies W, Savulescu J, et al., editors. Psychiatry reborn: biopsychosocial psychiatry in modern medicine. Oxford University Press; 2020. p. 213\u201328. Available from: doi: 10.1093\/med\/9780198789697.003.0014","DOI":"10.1093\/med\/9780198789697.003.0014"},{"issue":"4","key":"pcbi.1012814.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2009.04.003","article-title":"Political ideology, exploration of novel stimuli, and attitude formation","volume":"45","author":"NJ Shook","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Exp Soc Psychol"}],"container-title":["PLOS Computational Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012814","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]],"date-time":"2025-05-14T17:49:58Z","timestamp":1747244998000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012814"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Christoph","family":"Mathys","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1012814","relation":{},"ISSN":["1553-7358"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1553-7358","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]}}}