{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T07:13:44Z","timestamp":1787987624064,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosdigitalhealth.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLOS Digit Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the United States today, one private company holds the digital keys to the nation\u2019s health. Epic Systems provides the electronic health record for 42.3% of acute care hospitals and controls over half (54.9%) of all acute care hospital beds, a concentration of market power unprecedented in modern healthcare IT. This paper investigates how Epic transformed from a small, privately held vendor into the dominant force shaping the electronic health record landscape, drawing on peer-reviewed literature, federal antitrust filings, and cross-national case studies. We chart its ascent from a unified-platform niche player, to market validation through Kaiser Permanente\u2019s multi-billion-dollar rollout, to rapid adoption under the HITECH Act. Quantitative analysis shows the U.S. hospital electronic health record market shifting from competitive to highly concentrated (Herfindahl\u2013Hirschman Index\u2009&gt;\u20092,500) after 2018, with Epic capturing nearly 70% of new hospital contracts in 2024. We examine the reinforcing mechanisms and standard practices, including network effects that add true interoperability value, high switching costs common to enterprise software, bundling practices, and workforce restrictions, that entrench this dominance, alongside alleged anti-competitive behaviors under active litigation. While some consolidation reflects legitimate business efficiencies and the inherent complexity of healthcare IT, the current level of market concentration poses significant governance challenges. International deployment failures in Norway, Denmark, Finland, and the United Kingdom reveal that Epic\u2019s success reflects market structures rather than clear technological superiority. Regulatory contrasts highlight how the European Health Data Space\u2019s mandatory interoperability, portability, and pre-market testing requirements are designed to prevent similar monopolization in the EU. We conclude with a reform blueprint that spans antitrust enforcement, structural separation, public utility models, and clinician-driven redesign, arguing that electronic health record systems must be governed as essential public health infrastructure. Confronting Epic\u2019s monopoly is critical to restoring competition, fostering innovation, and ensuring that digital health serves patients and the public good.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pdig.0001143","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T17:34:46Z","timestamp":1774287286000},"page":"e0001143","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pdig.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["A problem of Epic proportion"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Rawan","family":"Abulibdeh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew G.","family":"Crowson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Molly J.","family":"Douglas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mena","family":"Ramos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noelle N.","family":"Saillant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6712-6626","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Leo Anthony","family":"Celi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"pdig.0001143.ref001","volume-title":"US Acute Care EHR Market Share 2025: Strength of Partnership Is Key in Decisions","author":"T Blauer","year":"2025"},{"issue":"7","key":"pdig.0001143.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-022-07917-3","article-title":"Trends in US hospital electronic health record vendor market concentration, 2012\u20132021","volume":"38","author":"AJ Holmgren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of General Internal Medicine"},{"key":"pdig.0001143.ref003","unstructured":"CureIS Healthcare, Inc. v. Epic Systems Corporation. CourtListener docket entry. 2025. https:\/\/www.courtlistener.com\/docket\/70248305\/cureis-healthcare-inc-v-epic-systems-corporation\/?entry_gte=4"},{"key":"pdig.0001143.ref004","unstructured":"Particle Health Inc v. 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