{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T21:58:31Z","timestamp":1759960711724,"version":"3.40.5"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,21]],"date-time":"2022-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658361600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"national cancer institute","award":["75N91020C00038"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N91020C00038"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosglobalpublichealth.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLOS Glob Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study uses two existing data sources to examine how patients\u2019 symptoms can be used to differentiate COVID-19 from other respiratory diseases. One dataset consisted of 839,288 laboratory-confirmed, symptomatic, COVID-19 positive cases reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from March 1, 2019, to September 30, 2020. The second dataset provided the controls and included 1,814 laboratory-confirmed influenza positive, symptomatic cases, and 812 cases with symptomatic influenza-like-illnesses. The controls were reported to the Influenza Research Database of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) between January 1, 2000, and December 30, 2018. Data were analyzed using case-control study design. The comparisons were done using 45 scenarios, with each scenario making different assumptions regarding prevalence of COVID-19 (2%, 4%, and 6%), influenza (0.01%, 3%, 6%, 9%, 12%) and influenza-like-illnesses (1%, 3.5% and 7%). For each scenario, a logistic regression model was used to predict COVID-19 from 2 demographic variables (age, gender) and 10 symptoms (cough, fever, chills, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, shortness of breath, runny nose, sore throat, myalgia, and headache). The 5-fold cross-validated Area under the Receiver Operating Curves (AROC) was used to report the accuracy of these regression models. The value of various symptoms in differentiating COVID-19 from influenza depended on a variety of factors, including (1) prevalence of pathogens that cause COVID-19, influenza, and influenza-like-illness; (2) age of the patient, and (3) presence of other symptoms. The model that relied on 5-way combination of symptoms and demographic variables, age and gender, had a cross-validated AROC of 90%, suggesting that it could accurately differentiate influenza from COVID-19. This model, however, is too complex to be used in clinical practice without relying on computer-based decision aid. Study results encourage development of web-based, stand-alone, artificial Intelligence model that can interview patients and help clinicians make quarantine and triage decisions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0000221","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,21]],"date-time":"2022-07-21T17:27:26Z","timestamp":1658424446000},"page":"e0000221","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Differential diagnosis of COVID-19 and influenza"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"2","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7402-9063","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Farrokh","family":"Alemi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jee","family":"Vang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Janusz","family":"Wojtusiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7624-0620","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Elina","family":"Guralnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0266-0235","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rachele","family":"Peterson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2321-1575","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Amira","family":"Roess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Praduman","family":"Jain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,21]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"pgph.0000221.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.3390\/v13030452","article-title":"A Comparative Systematic Review of COVID-19 and Influenza","volume":"13","author":"M Osman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0000221.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1080\/23744235.2020.1840623","article-title":"Comparison of the clinical characteristics and outcomes of hospitalized adult COVID-19 and influenza patients\u2014a prospective observational study","volume":"53","author":"R Auvinen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect Dis (Lond)"},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0000221.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1097\/QMH.0000000000000339","article-title":"Modeling the Probability of COVID-19 Based on Symptom Screening and Prevalence of Influenza and Influenza-Like Illnesses","volume":"31","author":"F Alemi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Quality Management in Healthcare"},{"key":"pgph.0000221.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628479","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.628479","article-title":"COVID-19 Is Not the Flu: Four Graphs from Four Countries","volume":"9","author":"J Stojanovic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"issue":"7838","key":"pgph.0000221.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-020-03519-3","article-title":"How COVID-19 is changing the cold and flu season","volume":"588","author":"N. 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