{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T12:44:45Z","timestamp":1787921085138,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,12]],"date-time":"2024-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718150400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000061","name":"Fogarty International Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000061","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosglobalpublichealth.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLOS Glob Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The prevalence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) is increasing in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This study examined differences in the burden of NCDs and their risk factors according to geographic, sex, and sociodemographic characteristics in a rural and peri-urban community in Eastern Uganda. We compared the prevalence by sex, location, wealth, and education. Unadjusted and adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) were reported. Indicators related to tobacco use, alcohol use, salt consumption, fruit\/vegetable consumption, physical activity, body weight, and blood pressure were assessed. Among 3220 people (53.3% males, mean age: 35.3 years), the prevalence of NCD burden differed by sex. Men had significantly higher tobacco (e.g., current smoking: 7.6% vs. 0.7%, adjusted PR (APR): 12.8, 95% CI: 7.4\u201322.3), alcohol use (e.g., current drinker: 11.1% vs. 4.6%, APR: 13.4, 95% CI: 7.9\u201322.7), and eat processed food high in salt (13.4% vs. 7.1, APR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.4\u20132.4) than women; however, the prevalence of overweight (23.1% vs 30.7%, APR: 0.7, 95% CI: 0.6\u20130.9) and obesity (4.1% vs 14.7%, APR: 0.3, 95% CI: 0.2\u20130.3) was lower among men than women. Comparing locations, peri-urban residents had a higher prevalence of current alcohol drinking, heavy episodic drinking, always\/often adding salt while cooking, always eating processed foods high in salt, poor physical activity, obesity, prehypertension, and hypertension than rural residents (p&lt;0.5). When comparing respondents by wealth and education, we found people who have higher wealth or education had a higher prevalence of always\/often adding salt while cooking, poor physical activity, and obesity. Although the findings were inconsistent, we observed significant sociodemographic and socioeconomic differences in the burden of many NCDs, including differences in the distributions of behavioral risk factors. Considering the high burden of many risk factors, we recommend appropriate prevention programs and policies to reduce these risk factors\u2019 burden and future negative consequences.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003308","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,12]],"date-time":"2024-06-12T17:32:16Z","timestamp":1718213536000},"page":"e0003308","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Geographical, sex, and socioeconomic differences in non-communicable disease indicators: A cross-sectional survey in Eastern Uganda"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7037-6658","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Gulam Muhammed Al","family":"Kibria","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ankita","family":"Meghani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles","family":"Ssemagabo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2216-1211","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Adaeze","family":"Wosu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6918-7681","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Tryphena","family":"Nareeba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Collins","family":"Gyezaho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5135-4225","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Edward","family":"Galiwango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Judith Kaija","family":"Nanyonga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4411-2309","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"George W.","family":"Pariyo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Kajungu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizeus","family":"Rutebemberwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dustin G.","family":"Gibson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30925-9","article-title":"Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990\u20132019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"396","author":"T Vos","year":"2020","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32203-7","article-title":"Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980\u20132017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"392","author":"GA Roth","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)31012-1","article-title":"Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980\u20132015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015","volume":"388","author":"H Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.19043","article-title":"Global Burden of Hypertension and Systolic Blood Pressure of at Least 110 to 115 mm Hg, 1990\u20132015","volume":"317","author":"MH Forouzanfar","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1659","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)31679-8","article-title":"Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990\u20132015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015","volume":"388","author":"MH Forouzanfar","year":"2016","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref006","author":"Uganda Bureau of Statistics","year":"2016","journal-title":"ICF International. Uganda Demographic and Health Survey"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-018-0324-2","article-title":"The unfunded priorities: an evaluation of priority setting for noncommunicable disease control in Uganda.","volume":"14","author":"BM Essue","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob Health"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-014-0077-5","article-title":"Looking at noncommunicable diseases in Uganda through a local lens: an analysis using locally derived data.","volume":"10","author":"JI Schwartz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob Health."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref009","volume-title":"GBD Compare Data Visualization.","author":"Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME).","year":"2020"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref010","first-page":"28","article-title":"Obesity as a form of malnutrition: over-nutrition on the Uganda \"malnutrition\" agenda.","author":"C Ngaruiya","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pan Afr Med J"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aogh.2017.04.005","article-title":"Physical Activity, Sleep, and BMI Percentile in Rural and Urban Ugandan Youth.","volume":"83","author":"MJ Christoph","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann Glob Health."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.9745\/GHSP-D-20-00051","article-title":"Curbing the Rise of Noncommunicable Diseases in Uganda: Perspectives of Policy Actors.","volume":"9","author":"A Meghani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glob Health Sci Pract."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1001683","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001683","article-title":"Urbanicity and Lifestyle Risk Factors for Cardiometabolic Diseases in Rural Uganda: A Cross-Sectional Study.","volume":"11","author":"J Riha","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0138991","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138991","article-title":"The Epidemiology of Hypertension in Uganda: Findings from the National Noncommunicable Diseases Risk Factor Survey.","volume":"10","author":"D Guwatudde","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref015","article-title":"Uganda: STEPs 2014.","author":"Y Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geneva, Switzerland"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref016","volume-title":"Uganda: STEPwise approach to NCD risk factor surveillance (STEPS).","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2023"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13690-019-0332-6","article-title":"Low consumption of fruits and vegetables among adults in Uganda: findings from a countrywide cross-sectional survey.","volume":"77","author":"SN Kabwama","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch Public Health"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021932020000085","article-title":"Clustering of hypertension, diabetes and overweight\/obesity according to socioeconomic status among Bangladeshi adults.","volume":"53","author":"GMA Kibria","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Biosoc Sci."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0181080","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0181080","article-title":"Increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in Bangladeshi women of reproductive age: Findings from 2004 to 2014.","volume":"12","author":"T Biswas","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLOS ONE."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27923","DOI":"10.3402\/gha.v8.27923","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for self-reported noncommunicable diseases among older Ugandans: a cross-sectional study.","volume":"8","author":"SO Wandera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob Health Action."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-015-0357-9","article-title":"High prevalence of hypertension and of risk factors for noncommunicable diseases (NCDs): a population based cross-sectional survey of NCDS and HIV infection in Northwestern Tanzania and Southern Uganda.","volume":"13","author":"B Kavishe","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61851-0","article-title":"Inequalities in noncommunicable diseases and effective responses","volume":"381","author":"M Di Cesare","year":"2013","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16030419","article-title":"Cardiovascular Disease Healthcare Utilization in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scoping Review.","volume":"16","author":"H Chikafu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008335","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.1008335","article-title":"Cardiovascular diseases in Africa in the twenty-first century: Gaps and priorities going forward.","volume":"9","author":"NW Minja","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Cardiovasc Med."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2036","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-12123-7","article-title":"The rural Uganda noncommunicable disease (RUNCD) study: prevalence and risk factors of self-reported NCDs from a cross sectional survey.","volume":"21","author":"T Siddharthan","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref026","author":"Makerere University Center for Health and Population Research","year":"2019","journal-title":"Demographic Surveillance."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref027","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2022","journal-title":"STEPwise Approach to Surveillance (STEPS)."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref028","author":"The Republic of Uganda- Ministry of Health","year":"2016","journal-title":"Uganda Clinical Guidelines 2016\u2014National Guidelines for Management of Common Conditions."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.3109\/10641969909061028","article-title":"1999 World Health Organization-International Society of Hypertension Guidelines for the management of hypertension. Guidelines sub-committee of the World Health Organization","volume":"21","author":"J Chalmers","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin Exp Hypertens"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2560","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.289.19.2560","article-title":"The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report","volume":"289","author":"AV Chobanian","year":"2003","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref031","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) Analysis Guide. Geneva, Switzerland."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref032","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2020","journal-title":"Body Mass Index Classification"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2137820","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.37820","article-title":"Trends in Prevalence of Tobacco Use by Sex and Socioeconomic Status in 22 Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2003\u20132019","volume":"4","author":"CT Sreeramareddy","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.1998.7.1247","article-title":"The Influence of Sex Hormones on Obesity across the Female Life Span.","volume":"7","author":"JC Lovejoy","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Womens Health."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e010085","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-010085","article-title":"Sex differences in the risk profile of hypertension: a cross-sectional study","volume":"6","author":"S Ghosh","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyv087","article-title":"Association of hypertension and hyperglycaemia with socioeconomic contexts in resource-poor settings: the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey","volume":"44","author":"E Harshfield","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref037","first-page":"e32638","volume":"7","author":"ME Hendriks","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hypertension in Sub-Saharan Africa: Cross-Sectional Surveys in Four Rural and Urban Communities. PLoS ONE"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1093\/emph\/eow013","article-title":"The low prevalence of female smoking in the developing world: gender inequality or maternal adaptations for fetal protection?","volume":"2016","author":"EH Hagen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Evol Med Public Health"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref039","author":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services","year":"2014","journal-title":"The Health Consequences of Smoking\u201450 Years of Progress."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref040","author":"Uganda Legal Information Institute","year":"2015","journal-title":"The Tobbacco"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-17753-1","article-title":"Noncommunicable diseases behavioural risk factors among secondary school adolescents in Urban Cameroon.","volume":"24","author":"CM Changoh","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.7895\/ijadr.v1i1.40","article-title":"Socioeconomic determinants for alcohol consumption and heavy episodic drinking in a Ugandan student population","volume":"1","author":"M Stafstr\u00f6m","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int J Alcohol Drug Res"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/964236","article-title":"Overweight and Obesity Epidemic in Developing Countries: A Problem with Diet, Physical Activity, or Socioeconomic Status?","volume":"2014","author":"T Bhurosy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci World J."},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200101043440101","article-title":"Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group","volume":"344","author":"FM Sacks","year":"2001","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.09004","article-title":"Trends in Prehypertension and Hypertension Risk Factors in US Adults: 1999\u20132012","volume":"70","author":"JN Booth","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref046","article-title":"Potential U.S. Population Impact of the 2017 American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association High Blood Pressure Guideline","author":"P Muntner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"pgph.0003308.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1223466","article-title":"Double burden of noncommunicable and infectious diseases in developing countries","volume":"337","author":"IC Bygbjerg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"}],"container-title":["PLOS Global Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003308","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,12]],"date-time":"2024-06-12T17:33:05Z","timestamp":1718213585000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003308"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Buna","family":"Bhandari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,12]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,12]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003308","relation":{},"ISSN":["2767-3375"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2767-3375","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,12]]}}}