{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T11:11:13Z","timestamp":1784977873072,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,27]],"date-time":"2024-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724716800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002992","name":"Department for International Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MR\/R023182\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/R023182\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002992","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002992","name":"Department for International Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002992","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001713","name":"European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001713","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PJT-180629"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PJT-180629"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PJT-156123"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PJT-156123"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosglobalpublichealth.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLOS Glob Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Violence, alcohol use, substance use and poor mental health have been linked with increased HIV acquisition risk, and genital inflammation enhances HIV susceptibility. We examined whether past 6 month experience of these exposures was associated with increased genital inflammation, thereby providing a biological link between these exposures and HIV acquisition risk. The Maisha Fiti study was a longitudinal mixed-methods study of female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya. Behavioural-biological surveys were conducted at baseline (June-December 2019) and endline (June 2020-March 2021). Analyses were restricted to HIV-negative women (n = 746). Women with raised levels of at least 5 of 9 genital inflammatory cytokines were defined as having genital inflammation. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to estimate (i) baseline associations between genital inflammation and violence, harmful alcohol\/substance use, and poor mental health, and (ii) longitudinal associations between these exposures at different survey rounds, and genital inflammation at follow-up. Inflammation data was available for 711 of 746 (95.3%) women at baseline; 351 (50.1%) had genital inflammation, as did 247 (46.7%) at follow-up. At baseline, 67.8% of women had experienced physical and\/or sexual violence in the past 6 months, 33.9% had harmful alcohol use, 26.4% had harmful substance use, 25.5% had moderate\/severe depression\/anxiety, and 13.9% had post-traumatic stress disorder. In adjusted analyses, there was no evidence that these exposures were associated cross-sectionally or longitudinally with genital inflammation. We report no associations between past 6 month experience of violence, harmful alcohol\/substance use, or poor mental health, and immune parameters previously associated with HIV risk. This suggests that the well-described epidemiological associations between these exposures and HIV acquisition do not appear to be mediated by genital immune changes, or that any such changes are relatively short-lived. High prevalences of these exposures suggest an urgent need for sex-worker specific violence, alcohol\/substance use and mental health interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003592","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,27]],"date-time":"2024-08-27T17:38:16Z","timestamp":1724780296000},"page":"e0003592","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Are violence, harmful alcohol\/substance use and poor mental health associated with increased genital inflammation?: A longitudinal cohort study with HIV-negative female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9156-7341","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Tara S.","family":"Beattie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4767-9420","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"James","family":"Pollock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rhoda","family":"Kabuti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tanya","family":"Abramsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0331-3825","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mary","family":"Kung\u2019u","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hellen","family":"Babu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"The Maisha Fiti Study Champions","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanja","family":"Huibner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8115-3735","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Suji","family":"Udayakumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chrispo","family":"Nyamweya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Monica","family":"Okumu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne","family":"Mahero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4908-1780","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alicja","family":"Beksinska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mamtuti","family":"Panneh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pauline","family":"Ngurukiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erastus","family":"Irungu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wendy","family":"Adhiambo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Muthoga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janet","family":"Seeley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Helen","family":"Weiss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rupert","family":"Kaul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua","family":"Kimani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,27]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"pgph.0003592.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1003297","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003297","article-title":"Mental health problems among female sex workers in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"TS Beattie","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"pgph.0003592.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0001216","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0001216","article-title":"Alcohol use and associated risk factors among female sex workers in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"3","author":"A Beksinska","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS Glob Public Health"},{"issue":"12","key":"pgph.0003592.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19127294","article-title":"Harmful Alcohol and Drug Use Is Associated with Syndemic Risk Factors among Female Sex Workers in Nairobi, Kenya","volume":"19","author":"A Beksinska","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Env Res Pub He"},{"issue":"4","key":"pgph.0003592.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000852","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000852","article-title":"Exposure to HIV-1 directly impairs mucosal epithelial barrier integrity allowing microbial translocation","volume":"6","author":"A Nazli","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"issue":"10159","key":"pgph.0003592.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1789","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32279-7","article-title":"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 354 diseases and injuries for 195 countries and territories, 1990\u20132017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"392","author":"GBD 2017 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"9619","key":"pgph.0003592.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)60522-X","article-title":"Intimate partner violence and women\u2019s physical and mental health in the WHO multi-country study on women\u2019s health and domestic violence: an observational study","volume":"371","author":"WHO Multi-country Study on Women\u2019s Health and Domestic Violence against Women Study Team","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0003592.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.10.085217","article-title":"Violence against women: an urgent public health priority","volume":"89","author":"C Garcia-Moreno","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"issue":"10","key":"pgph.0003592.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2056","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13204","article-title":"Alcohol Use and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection: Current Knowledge, Implications, and Future Directions","volume":"40","author":"EC Williams","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alcohol Clin Exp Res"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18845","DOI":"10.7448\/IAS.17.1.18845","article-title":"Intimate partner violence and HIV infection among women: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Y Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Int AIDS Soc"},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0003592.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(14)70343-2","article-title":"Intimate partner violence and HIV in ten sub-Saharan African countries: what do the Demographic and Health Surveys tell us?","volume":"3","author":"D Durevall","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref011","unstructured":"UNAIDS. UNAIDS Data 2020. Geneva, Switzerland, 2020. [cited 26th July 2024]. https:\/\/www.unaids.org\/sites\/default\/files\/media_asset\/2020_aids-data-book_en.pdf"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4690-10-141","article-title":"Immune quiescence: a model of protection against HIV infection","volume":"10","author":"CM Card","year":"2013","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0003592.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2015.51","article-title":"Increased levels of inflammatory cytokines in the female reproductive tract are associated with altered expression of proteases, mucosal barrier proteins, and an influx of HIV-susceptible target cells","volume":"9","author":"KB Arnold","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"issue":"6884","key":"pgph.0003592.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1038\/417095a","article-title":"HIV preferentially infects HIV-specific CD4+ T cells","volume":"417","author":"DC Douek","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0003592.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ298","article-title":"Genital inflammation and the risk of HIV acquisition in women","volume":"61","author":"L Masson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"Suppl 3","key":"pgph.0003592.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S333","DOI":"10.1086\/655967","article-title":"Determinants of protection among HIV\u2010exposed seronegative persons: an overview","volume":"202 Suppl 3","author":"MM Lederman","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"8","key":"pgph.0003592.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e43670","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0043670","article-title":"Blunted IL17\/IL22 and pro-inflammatory cytokine responses in the genital tract and blood of HIV-exposed, seronegative female sex workers in Kenya","volume":"7","author":"D Chege","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"9","key":"pgph.0003592.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6117","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.175.9.6117","article-title":"Low-level CD4+ T cell activation is associated with low susceptibility to HIV-1 infection","volume":"175","author":"FA Koning","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pgph.0003592.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2013.83","article-title":"Immune correlates of HIV exposure without infection in foreskins of men from Rakai, Uganda","volume":"7","author":"JL Prodger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pgph.0003592.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2015.116","article-title":"HIV-1-negative female sex workers sustain high cervical IFN\u025b, low immune activation, and low expression of HIV-1-required host genes","volume":"9","author":"SA Abdulhaqq","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pgph.0003592.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13432","DOI":"10.1111\/aji.13432","article-title":"Recent sexual violence exposure is associated with immune biomarkers of HIV susceptibility in women","volume":"86","author":"AM Aldous","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Reprod Immunol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pgph.0003592.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1037\/a0030956","article-title":"Exposure to Interpersonal Violence and Its Associations With Psychiatric Morbidity in a U.S. National Sample: A Gender Comparison","volume":"3","author":"KM Iverson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol Violence"},{"issue":"5","key":"pgph.0003592.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1001439","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001439","article-title":"Intimate partner violence and incident depressive symptoms and suicide attempts: a systematic review of longitudinal studies","volume":"10","author":"KM Devries","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0003592.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2013.04.030","article-title":"Interpersonal violence, PTSD, and inflammation: potential psychogenic pathways to higher C-reactive protein levels","volume":"63","author":"NM Heath","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"issue":"8","key":"pgph.0003592.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2011.02.012","article-title":"Increased cortisol concentrations in hair of severely traumatized Ugandan individuals with PTSD","volume":"36","author":"S Steudte","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrino"},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0003592.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s12963-017-0121-9","article-title":"Does alcohol use have a causal effect on HIV incidence and disease progression? A review of the literature and a modeling strategy for quantifying the effect","volume":"15","author":"J Rehm","year":"2017","journal-title":"Popul Health Metr"},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0003592.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s11121-006-0061-2","article-title":"Alcohol use and sexual risks for HIV\/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa: systematic review of empirical findings","volume":"8","author":"SC Kalichman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prev Sci"},{"issue":"60","key":"pgph.0003592.ref028","article-title":"Immune parameters of HIV susceptibility in the female genital tract before and after penile-vaginal sex","volume":"2","author":"A Mohammadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0003592.ref029","first-page":"159","article-title":"Alcohol\u2019s Effect on Host Defense","volume":"37","author":"G Szabo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Alcohol Res-Curr Rev"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06968-8","article-title":"Smoking changes adaptive immunity with persistent effects","volume":"626","author":"V Saint-Andr\u00e9","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref031","article-title":"Cocaine Use Disorder Is Associated With Changes in Th1\/Th2\/Th17 Cytokines and Lymphocytes Subsets","volume":"10","author":"Z Aline","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pgph.0003592.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3125","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24043125","article-title":"Effects of Cannabidiol on Innate Immunity: Experimental Evidence and Clinical Relevance","volume":"24","author":"S Martini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pgph.0003592.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1111\/add.12393","article-title":"Intimate partner violence victimization and alcohol consumption in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"109","author":"KM Devries","year":"2014","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"issue":"12","key":"pgph.0003592.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm7120543","article-title":"Examining the Association and Directionality between Mental Health Disorders and Substance Use among Adolescents and Young Adults in the U.S. and Canada\u2014A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"7","author":"S Esmaeelzadeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref035","unstructured":"UNAIDS. Country factsheets. Kenya 2021 Geneva, Switzerland: UNAIDS; 2021. [cited 16th May 2023]. https:\/\/www.unaids.org\/en\/regionscountries\/countries\/kenya"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref036","unstructured":"Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume I: Population by County and Sub-County. 2019; [cited 16th May 2023]. https:\/\/www.knbs.or.ke\/publications\/"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref037","unstructured":"National AIDS and STI Control Programme (NASCOP). Key Population mapping and size estimation in selected counties in Kenya, Phase 1 report. Nairobi: Government of Kenya, 2019. [cited 2020 Mar 27]. https:\/\/hivpreventioncoalition.unaids.org\/wp\u2010content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/KPSE\u2010Phase1\u2010Final\u2010Report.pdf"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref038","unstructured":"National Syndemic Disease Control Council. HIV Estimates Portal. [cited June 25, 2024]. https:\/\/analytics.nsdcc.go.ke\/estimates\/#!\/kenya\/countywkbook"},{"issue":"S2","key":"pgph.0003592.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25711","DOI":"10.1002\/jia2.25711","article-title":"Intimate partner and client-perpetrated violence are associated with reduced HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) uptake, depression and generalized anxiety in a cross-sectional study of female sex workers from Nairobi, Kenya","volume":"24","author":"M Leis","year":"2021","journal-title":"J AIDS Int Soc"},{"issue":"9","key":"pgph.0003592.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2969","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-022-03654-0","article-title":"Factors Associated with Retention in HIV Prevention and Treatment Clinical Services Among Female Sex Workers Enrolled in a Sex Workers\u2019 Outreach Program (SWOP) in Nairobi, Kenya","volume":"26","author":"P Eshikumo","year":"2022","journal-title":"AIDS Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0003592.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-021-03515-5","article-title":"Prevalence and correlates of common mental health problems and recent suicidal thoughts and behaviours among female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya","volume":"21","author":"A Beksinska","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"issue":"9543","key":"pgph.0003592.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(06)69523-8","article-title":"WHO Multi-country Study on Women\u2019s Health and Domestic Violence against Women Study Team. Prevalence of intimate partner violence: findings from the WHO multi-country study on women\u2019s health and domestic violence","volume":"368","author":"C Garcia-Moreno","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"11","key":"pgph.0003592.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20116046","article-title":"The Maisha Fiti Study Champions, et al. Violence across the Life Course and Implications for Intervention Design: Findings from the Maisha Fiti Study with Female Sex Workers in Nairobi, Kenya","volume":"20","author":"TS Beattie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Env Res Pub He"},{"issue":"9","key":"pgph.0003592.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1002381","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002381","article-title":"Women\u2019s and men\u2019s reports of past-year prevalence of intimate partner violence and rape and women\u2019s risk factors for intimate partner violence: A multicountry cross-sectional study in Asia and the Pacific","volume":"14","author":"R Jewkes","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"15\u201316","key":"pgph.0003592.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9105","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605231162887","article-title":"Optimizing the Construction of Outcome Measures for Impact Evaluations of Intimate Partner Violence Prevention Interventions","volume":"38","author":"S Chatterji","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Interpers Violence"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2019.100377","article-title":"Measuring psychological abuse by intimate partners: Constructing a cross-cultural indicator for the Sustainable Development Goals","volume":"9","author":"L Heise","year":"2019","journal-title":"SSM Popul Health"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2016.03.006","article-title":"Validation of screening tools for depression and anxiety disorders in a primary care population with high HIV prevalence in Zimbabwe","volume":"198","author":"D Chibanda","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadr.2020.100013","article-title":"Validation of a Swahili version of the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) among adults living with HIV compared to a community sample from Kilifi, Kenya","volume":"1","author":"P Mwangi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Affect Disord Rep"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s12991-020-00312-4","article-title":"The reliability, validity and factorial structure of the Swahili version of the 7-item generalized anxiety disorder scale (GAD-7) among adults living with HIV from Kilifi, Kenya","volume":"19","author":"MK Nyongesa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Gen Psychiatry"},{"issue":"12","key":"pgph.0003592.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2442","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2009.173229","article-title":"The relationship of trauma to mental disorders among trafficked and sexually exploited girls and women","volume":"100","author":"M Hossain","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"pgph.0003592.ref051","unstructured":"World Health Organisation. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST). Manual for use in primary care Geneva, Switzerland 2010. [cited 03\/05\/2023]. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/978924159938-2"},{"issue":"9","key":"pgph.0003592.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix088","article-title":"Distinct Effects of the Cervicovaginal Microbiota and Herpes Simplex Type 2 Infection on Female Genital Tract Immunology","volume":"215","author":"B Shannon","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pgph.0003592.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2011.300544","article-title":"Methods for the scientific study of discrimination and health: an ecosocial approach","volume":"102","author":"N. Krieger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"pgph.0003592.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/30.4.668","article-title":"Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century: an ecosocial perspective","volume":"30","author":"N. Krieger","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0003592.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000042","article-title":"HIV infection among female sex workers in concentrated and high prevalence epidemics: why a structural determinants framework is needed","volume":"9","author":"K Shannon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr Opin HIV AIDS"},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0003592.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/26.1.224","article-title":"The role of conceptual frameworks in epidemiological analysis: a hierarchical approach","volume":"26","author":"CG Victora","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"9","key":"pgph.0003592.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2017.6743","article-title":"Gender-Based Violence, Physiological Stress, and Inflammation: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"27","author":"M Heller","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Womens Health (Larchmt)"}],"container-title":["PLOS Global Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003592","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,27]],"date-time":"2024-08-27T17:38:50Z","timestamp":1724780330000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003592"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Tanmay","family":"Bagade","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,27]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,27]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003592","relation":{},"ISSN":["2767-3375"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2767-3375","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,27]]}}}