{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T20:46:19Z","timestamp":1790196379844,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770854400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NV-008782"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NV-008782"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Harvey and Leslie Wagner Foundation"},{"name":"Mitsuru and Lucinda Igarashi Fund"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosglobalpublichealth.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLOS Glob Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Accurate diagnostics are essential for disease control and elimination efforts. However, access to diagnostics for neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) is hindered by limited healthcare infrastructure in many NTD-endemic regions, as well as by reliance on time- and labor-intensive diagnostic methods, such as smear microscopy. New diagnostic tools that are portable, rapid, low-cost, and meet World Health Organization (WHO) sensitivity and specificity targets are urgently needed to accelerate NTD control and elimination programs. Here, we introduce the NTDscope, a portable microscopy platform that enables point-of-care imaging and automated detection of parasites and other pathogens in patient samples. The NTDscope builds on and extends the capabilities of the LoaScope, a device that turned the camera of a mobile phone into a microscope and used on-board image processing to automatically quantify\n                    <jats:italic>Loa loa<\/jats:italic>\n                    microfilariae burden in whole blood samples. The NTDscope replaces the mobile phone of the LoaScope with a system-on-module (SOM) that enables the integration of multiple imaging modalities in a single package designed to improve robustness and expand applications. In this work, we demonstrate the use of the NTDscope as a portable brightfield, darkfield, and fluorescence microscope for samples including microfilariae and helminth eggs. We also show that the device can be used to quantify molecular assays, such as a lateral flow test and a CRISPR-Cas13a-based assay. The ability to combine the diagnostic capabilities of conventional microscopy with molecular assays and machine learning in a single device could expand access to diagnostics for populations in NTD-endemic areas and beyond.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0005937","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T18:54:02Z","timestamp":1770922442000},"page":"e0005937","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["NTDscope: A multi-contrast portable microscope for disease diagnosis"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3080-7027","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mar\u00eda","family":"D\u00edaz de Le\u00f3n Derby","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9166-7315","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Zaina L.","family":"Moussa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3760-6482","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Carlos F.","family":"Ng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5209-7578","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Abdul M.","family":"Bhuiya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5100-4560","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Joana P.","family":"Cabrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dipayan","family":"Banik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4860-8069","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Charles B.","family":"Delahunt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2081-6587","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Matthew D.","family":"Keller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0998-9375","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Anne-Laure M.","family":"Le Ny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4817-9279","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jaime","family":"Garcia-Villena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4599-0370","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Elena","family":"Dacal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0181-3957","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"David","family":"Bermejo-Pel\u00e1ez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7216-0298","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Daniel","family":"Cuadrado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8694-2001","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Miguel","family":"Luengo-Oroz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4496-6048","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hugues C.","family":"Nana Djeunga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1572-3490","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Joseph","family":"Kamgno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5098-6176","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Linda Djune","family":"Yemeli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6643-8355","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Victor","family":"Pahl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0027-0715","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Saskia D.","family":"Davi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7425-2794","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rella","family":"Zoleko Manego","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9259-1885","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Michael","family":"Ramharter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1590-6748","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Isaac I.","family":"Bogoch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean T.","family":"Coulibaly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4986-6396","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Amena","family":"Khatun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mamun","family":"Kabir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9431-358X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Zannatun","family":"Noor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5100-136X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rashidul","family":"Haque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3639-4588","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Neil A.","family":"Switz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel H.","family":"Friedman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1061-2916","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Michael V.","family":"D\u2019Ambrosio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1890-5364","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Daniel A.","family":"Fletcher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref001","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Ending the neglect to attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A road map for neglected tropical diseases 2021 \u20132030; 2020. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789240010352"},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref002","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Global report on neglected tropical diseases 2023 ; 2023. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789240067295"},{"issue":"7","key":"pgph.0005937.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30254-1","article-title":"Sensitive diagnostic tools and targeted drug administration strategies are needed to eliminate schistosomiasis","volume":"20","author":"AS Amoah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis."},{"issue":"3","key":"pgph.0005937.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0070-2016","article-title":"Performance of POC-CCA\u00ae in diagnosis of schistosomiasis mansoni in individuals with low parasite burden","volume":"49","author":"LMV Siqueira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev Soc Bras Med Trop."},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0005937.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2016.04.002","article-title":"Evaluation and optimization of the Circulating Cathodic Antigen (POC-CCA) cassette test for detecting Schistosoma mansoni infection by using image analysis in school children in Mwanza Region, Tanzania","volume":"1","author":"M Casacuberta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol Control."},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0005937.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.19-0053","article-title":"Lateral flow dipstick test for serodiagnosis of strongyloidiasis","volume":"101","author":"MH Yunus","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0005937.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0583","article-title":"A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for Strongyloides stercoralis in stool that uses a visual detection method with SYTO-82 fluorescent dye","volume":"90","author":"MR Watts","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2420-1","article-title":"Isothermal diagnostic assays for the detection of soil-transmitted helminths based on the SmartAmp2 method","volume":"10","author":"N Rashwan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."},{"issue":"9","key":"pgph.0005937.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012461","article-title":"A novel antigen biomarker for detection of high-level of Loa loa microfilaremia","volume":"18","author":"SE Greene","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"7","key":"pgph.0005937.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005741","article-title":"A novel rapid test for detecting antibody responses to Loa loa infections","volume":"11","author":"B Pedram","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460331","DOI":"10.3389\/fpara.2024.1460331","article-title":"Detecting two Schistosoma circulating antigens - CCA and CAA - in urine and serum to improve diagnosis of human schistosomiasis","volume":"3","author":"PT Hoekstra","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Parasitol."},{"issue":"4","key":"pgph.0005937.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008087","article-title":"Comparison of multi-parallel qPCR and double-slide Kato-Katz for detection of soil-transmitted helminth infection among children in rural Bangladesh","volume":"14","author":"J Benjamin-Chung","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2023.10.005","article-title":"Current and upcoming point-of-care diagnostics for schistosomiasis","volume":"40","author":"J Rivera","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2017.02.003","article-title":"Re-imagining the future of diagnosis of Neglected Tropical Diseases","volume":"15","author":"RW Peeling","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput Struct Biotechnol J."},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0005937.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182022001664","article-title":"A review on innovative optical devices for the diagnosis of human soil-transmitted helminthiasis and schistosomiasis: From research and development to commercialization","volume":"150","author":"B Meulah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Parasitology."},{"issue":"3","key":"pgph.0005937.ref016","article-title":"Diagnostic tools for soil-transmitted helminths control and elimination programs: A pathway for diagnostic product development","volume":"12","author":"MD Lim","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"7","key":"pgph.0005937.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001746","article-title":"A diagnostics platform for the integrated mapping, monitoring, and surveillance of neglected tropical diseases: Rationale and target product profiles","volume":"6","author":"AW Solomon","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"6","key":"pgph.0005937.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009405","article-title":"Diagnosing point-of-care diagnostics for neglected tropical diseases","volume":"15","author":"M Bharadwaj","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0005937.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011967","article-title":"Validation of artificial intelligence-based digital microscopy for automated detection of Schistosoma haematobium eggs in urine in Gabon","volume":"18","author":"B Meulah","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"6","key":"pgph.0005937.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010500","article-title":"Affordable artificial intelligence-based digital pathology for neglected tropical diseases: A proof-of-concept for the detection of soil-transmitted helminths and Schistosoma mansoni eggs in Kato-Katz stool thick smears","volume":"16","author":"P Ward","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14833","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-42049-6","article-title":"Performance evaluation of the AiDx multi-diagnostic automated microscope for the detection of schistosomiasis in Abuja, Nigeria","volume":"13","author":"L Makau-Barasa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"issue":"19","key":"pgph.0005937.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2408","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics10192408","article-title":"3D-printed portable robotic mobile microscope for remote diagnosis of global health diseases","volume":"10","author":"J Garc\u00eda-Villena","year":"2021","journal-title":"Electronics."},{"issue":"4","key":"pgph.0005937.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012041","article-title":"Diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminth infections with digital mobile microscopy and artificial intelligence in a resource-limited setting","volume":"18","author":"J Lundin","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"5","key":"pgph.0005937.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13050643","article-title":"Schistoscope: An automated microscope with artificial intelligence for detection of Schistosoma haematobium eggs in resource-limited settings","volume":"13","author":"P Oyibo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Micromachines."},{"issue":"4","key":"pgph.0005937.ref025","article-title":"Edge Artificial Intelligence (AI) for real-time automatic quantification of filariasis in mobile microscopy","volume":"18","author":"L Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"9","key":"pgph.0005937.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009677","article-title":"Mobile microscopy and telemedicine platform assisted by deep learning for the quantification of Trichuris trichiura infection","volume":"15","author":"E Dacal","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03631-3","article-title":"Performance of a fully-automated system on a WHO malaria microscopy evaluation slide set","volume":"20","author":"MP Horning","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref028","article-title":"Field evaluation of the diagnostic performance of EasyScan GO: A digital malaria microscopy device based on machine-learning","volume":"21","author":"D Das","year":"2022","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jung T, Anzaku ET, \u00d6zbulak U, Magez S, Van Messem A, De Neve W. Automatic detection of trypanosomosis in thick blood smears using image pre-processing and deep learning. Lecture notes in computer science. Springer International Publishing; 2021. p. 254\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-68452-5_27","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-68452-5_27"},{"issue":"14","key":"pgph.0005937.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8076","DOI":"10.3390\/app13148076","article-title":"Detection of human visceral leishmaniasis parasites in microscopy images from bone marrow parasitological examination","volume":"13","author":"C Gon\u00e7alves","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl Sci."},{"issue":"7","key":"pgph.0005937.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2024.05.005","article-title":"AI-powered microscopy image analysis for parasitology: Integrating human expertise","volume":"40","author":"R Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"issue":"5","key":"pgph.0005937.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.21-1071","article-title":"Point-of-care sample preparation and automated quantitative detection of Schistosoma haematobium using mobile phone microscopy.","volume":"106","author":"M Armstrong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"issue":"11","key":"pgph.0005937.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012614","article-title":"Development of an automated artificial intelligence-based system for urogenital schistosomiasis diagnosis using digital image analysis techniques and a robotized microscope","volume":"18","author":"C Rubio Maturana","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"8","key":"pgph.0005937.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012879","article-title":"Multi-contrast machine learning improves schistosomiasis diagnostic performance","volume":"19","author":"M D\u00edaz de Le\u00f3n Derby","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"3","key":"pgph.0005937.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-012-9666-6","article-title":"Smart phone as an adjunctive imaging tool to visualize scolex in orbital myocysticercosis","volume":"33","author":"M Meena","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int Ophthalmol."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.15-0427","article-title":"Smartphone microscopy of parasite eggs accumulated into a single field of view","volume":"94","author":"SJ Sowerby","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"issue":"7","key":"pgph.0005937.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0006320","article-title":"Mobile phone based clinical microscopy for global health applications","volume":"4","author":"DN Breslauer","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"issue":"18","key":"pgph.0005937.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2419","DOI":"10.1039\/c004829a","article-title":"Detection of waterborne parasites using field-portable and cost-effective lensfree microscopy","volume":"10","author":"O Mudanyali","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lab Chip."},{"issue":"6","key":"pgph.0005937.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004768","article-title":"Accuracy of mobile phone and handheld light microscopy for the diagnosis of schistosomiasis and intestinal protozoa infections in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire","volume":"10","author":"JT Coulibaly","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"4","key":"pgph.0005937.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.12-0742","article-title":"Mobile phone microscopy for the diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminth infections: A proof-of-concept study","volume":"88","author":"II Bogoch","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01469-17","article-title":"\u201cSmart Diagnosis\u201d of parasitic diseases by use of smartphones","volume":"56","author":"MA Saeed","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol."},{"issue":"14","key":"pgph.0005937.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1039\/c003477k","article-title":"Lensfree microscopy on a cellphone","volume":"10","author":"D Tseng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lab Chip."},{"issue":"7","key":"pgph.0005937.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1039\/c3lc41408f","article-title":"Cost-effective and rapid blood analysis on a cell-phone","volume":"13","author":"H Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lab Chip."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13368","DOI":"10.1038\/srep13368","article-title":"Malaria diagnosis using a mobile phone polarized microscope","volume":"5","author":"CW Pirnstill","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"issue":"9070","key":"pgph.0005937.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(96)11094-1","article-title":"Serious reactions after mass treatment of onchocerciasis with ivermectin in an area endemic for Loa loa infection","volume":"350","author":"J Gardon","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"issue":"286","key":"pgph.0005937.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaa3480","article-title":"Point-of-care quantification of blood-borne filarial parasites with a mobile phone microscope","volume":"7","author":"MV D\u2019Ambrosio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med."},{"issue":"21","key":"pgph.0005937.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2044","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1705026","article-title":"A test-and-not-treat strategy for onchocerciasis in loa loa-endemic areas","volume":"377","author":"J Kamgno","year":"2017","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"issue":"5","key":"pgph.0005937.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0095330","article-title":"Low-cost mobile phone microscopy with a reversed mobile phone camera lens","volume":"9","author":"NA Switz","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.22-0527","article-title":"High sensitivity of mobile phone microscopy screening for Schistosoma haematobium in Azagui\u00e9, C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire","volume":"108","author":"JT Coulibaly","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0005937.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.24-0043","article-title":"Rapid and comprehensive screening for urogenital and gastrointestinal schistosomiasis with handheld digital microscopy combined with circulating cathodic antigen testing","volume":"111","author":"JT Coulibaly","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref051","unstructured":"Sony Corporation. Sony releases stacked CMOS image sensor for smartphones with industry\u2019s highest 48 effective megapixels. Sony News; 2018. https:\/\/www.sony.com\/en\/SonyInfo\/News\/Press\/201807\/18-060E\/"},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref052","unstructured":"Mouser Electronics. Sony Product Brief IMX214;. Available from: https:\/\/www.mouser.com\/datasheet\/2\/897\/ProductBrief_IMX214_20150428-1289331.pdf."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref053","unstructured":"Sony Semiconductor Solutions Corporation. Diagonal 8.000 mm (Type 1\/2.0) 48 mega-pixel CMOS image sensor with square pixel for color cameras IMX586-AAJH5-C; 2018. https:\/\/www.ckvisioncam.com\/download\/imx586-aajh5-c_1-0-0_sony-cmos-sensor-datasheet-pdf\/"},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref054","unstructured":"ONNX Runtime. How to develop a mobile application with ONNX Runtime; 2024. https:\/\/onnxruntime.ai\/docs\/tutorials\/mobile\/. Accessed 2024 December 1."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref055","unstructured":"Google\u2019s TensorFlow Lite team. On-device training in TensorFlow Lite. https:\/\/blog.tensorflow.org\/2021\/11\/on-device-training-in-tensorflow-lite.html. Accessed 2024 December 1"},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00edaz de Le\u00f3n Derby M, Coulibaly JT, Dacal E, Silue KD, Cuadrado D, Bermejo-Pel\u00e1ez D, et al. Edge-tuning of artificial intelligence improves diagnostic performance for Schistosomiasis haematobium in a rural setting of C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire. openRxiv. 2025. http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1101\/2025.07.11.25331398","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.07.11.25331398"},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref057","unstructured":"WHO. Bench aids for the diagnosis of intestinal parasites. 2 ed. 2019."},{"issue":"9","key":"pgph.0005937.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2017.067","article-title":"The mini-FLOTAC technique for the diagnosis of helminth and protozoan infections in humans and animals","volume":"12","author":"G Cringoli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Protoc."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref059","unstructured":"Vetoquinol G. Fecalyzer Kit. https:\/\/www.vetoquinolusa.com\/products\/fecalyzer-kit. Accessed 2024 December 1."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref060","unstructured":"Friedman DH. Global health diagnostics via mobile phone microscopy: Improving contrast and resolution. UC Berkeley; 2019."},{"issue":"7","key":"pgph.0005937.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-021-00760-7","article-title":"CRISPR-based diagnostics","volume":"5","author":"MM Kaminski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Biomed Eng."},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0005937.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.12.001","article-title":"Amplification-free detection of SARS-CoV-2 with CRISPR-Cas13a and mobile phone microscopy","volume":"184","author":"P Fozouni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762008005000005","article-title":"A new miracidia hatching device for diagnosing schistosomiasis","volume":"103","author":"AD Jurberg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz."},{"issue":"2","key":"pgph.0005937.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics6020024","article-title":"Mobile diagnostics based on motion? A close look at motility patterns in the schistosome life cycle","volume":"6","author":"E Linder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diagnostics (Basel)."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-3-71","article-title":"Comparative cost assessment of the Kato-Katz and FLOTAC techniques for soil-transmitted helminth diagnosis in epidemiological surveys","volume":"3","author":"B Speich","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."},{"issue":"3","key":"pgph.0005937.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3156.2001.00687.x","article-title":"The unreliability of the Kato-Katz technique limits its usefulness for evaluating S. mansoni infections","volume":"6","author":"A Kongs","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref067","article-title":"Reliability evaluation in rural Congo of the calibrated blood smear technique to assess Loa loa microfilaremia level","volume":"3","author":"JT Campillo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med Trop Sante Int."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref068","unstructured":"Delahunt CB, Mehanian C, Horning MP. Reducing Poisson error can offset classification error: A technique to meet clinical performance requirements. In: Hegselmann S, Zhou H, Healey E, Chang T, Ellington C, Mhasawade V, et al., editors. Proceedings of the 4th machine learning for health symposium. vol. 259 of proceedings of machine learning research. PMLR; 2025. p. 233\u201347. Available from: https:\/\/proceedings.mlr.press\/v259\/delahunt25a.html"},{"issue":"5","key":"pgph.0005937.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1007\/s004360100378","article-title":"Autofluorescence microscopy for the detection of nematode eggs and protozoa, in particular Isospora suis, in swine faeces","volume":"87","author":"A Daugschies","year":"2001","journal-title":"Parasitol Res."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7219","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-63747-5","article-title":"Real-time detection and identification of nematode eggs genus and species through optical imaging","volume":"10","author":"F Qazi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-05027-3","article-title":"Reduction of autofluorescence in whole adult worms of Schistosoma japonicum for immunofluorescence assay","volume":"14","author":"Q Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."},{"issue":"6","key":"pgph.0005937.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2019.57.6.581","article-title":"Application of autofluorescence for confocal microscopy to aid in archaeoparasitological analyses","volume":"57","author":"JJ Morrow","year":"2019","journal-title":"Korean J Parasitol."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4990","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-31238-y","article-title":"CRISPR-assisted test for Schistosoma haematobium","volume":"13","author":"D Cherkaoui","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104730","article-title":"Development of CRISPR\/Cas13a-based assays for the diagnosis of Schistosomiasis","volume":"94","author":"SR MacGregor","year":"2023","journal-title":"EBioMedicine."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2022.104308","article-title":"SHERLOCK4HAT: A CRISPR-based tool kit for diagnosis of Human African Trypanosomiasis","volume":"85","author":"N Sima","year":"2022","journal-title":"EBioMedicine."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958693","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.958693","article-title":"Novel CRISPR-based detection of Leishmania species","volume":"13","author":"E Due\u00f1as","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Microbiol."},{"issue":"41","key":"pgph.0005937.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25722","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2010196117","article-title":"Ultrasensitive CRISPR-based diagnostic for field-applicable detection of Plasmodium species in symptomatic and asymptomatic malaria","volume":"117","author":"RA Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A."},{"issue":"6387","key":"pgph.0005937.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aas8836","article-title":"Field-deployable viral diagnostics using CRISPR-Cas13","volume":"360","author":"C Myhrvold","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2022021","article-title":"A novel rapid visual detection assay for Toxoplasma gondii combining recombinase-aided amplification and lateral flow dipstick coupled with CRISPR-Cas13a fluorescence (RAA-Cas13a-LFD)","volume":"29","author":"J Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasite."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04709-2","article-title":"CRISPR\/Cas12a-based on-site diagnostics of Cryptosporidium parvum IId-subtype-family from human and cattle fecal samples","volume":"14","author":"F Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."},{"issue":"4","key":"pgph.0005937.ref081","article-title":"Potential of the CRISPR-Cas system for improved parasite diagnosis: CRISPR-Cas mediated diagnosis in parasitic infections: CRISPR-Cas mediated diagnosis in parasitic infections","volume":"44","author":"H You","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioessays."},{"issue":"32","key":"pgph.0005937.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abh2944","article-title":"Minimally instrumented SHERLOCK (miSHERLOCK) for CRISPR-based point-of-care diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 and emerging variants","volume":"7","author":"H de Puig","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Adv."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref083","unstructured":"Lumos Diagnostics. Reader platforms and customization. https:\/\/lumosdiagnostics.com\/services\/readers. Accessed 2025 February 28."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref084","unstructured":"Axxin. AX-2X-S Lateral Flow Reader. https:\/\/www.axxin.com\/ax-2x-s. Accessed 2025 February 28."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref085","unstructured":"Gold Standard Diagnostics. RapidScan ST5-W lateral flow assay reader. https:\/\/www.goldstandarddiagnostics.com\/rapidscan-lfd-reader.html. Accessed 2025 February 28."},{"issue":"19","key":"pgph.0005937.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7398","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197398","article-title":"Lateral flow immunoassay reader technologies for quantitative point-of-care testing","volume":"22","author":"J Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)."},{"issue":"8","key":"pgph.0005937.ref087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14080820","article-title":"Flow-S: A field-deployable device with minimal hands-on effort to concentrate and quantify schistosoma circulating anodic antigen (CAA) from large urine volumes","volume":"14","author":"D de Jong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Diagnostics (Basel)."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref088","first-page":"2800208","article-title":"Point-of-care monitoring of respiratory diseases using lateral flow assay and CMOS camera reader","volume":"10","author":"S Raj","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J Transl Eng Health Med."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nantod.2019.100831","article-title":"Strategies for developing sensitive and specific nanoparticle-based lateral flow assays as point-of-care diagnostic device","volume":"30","author":"JH Soh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nano Today."},{"issue":"14","key":"pgph.0005937.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6401","DOI":"10.3390\/s23146401","article-title":"A quantitative detection algorithm for multi-test line lateral flow immunoassay applied in smartphones","volume":"23","author":"S Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/s44222-022-00007-3","article-title":"Lateral flow test engineering and lessons learned from COVID-19","volume":"1","author":"J Budd","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat Rev Bioeng."},{"key":"pgph.0005937.ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100710","DOI":"10.1016\/j.softx.2021.100710","article-title":"pyPOCQuant \u2013 A tool to automatically quantify point-of-care tests from images","volume":"15","author":"AP Cuny","year":"2021","journal-title":"SoftwareX."},{"issue":"1","key":"pgph.0005937.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s43008-024-00158-5","article-title":"Artificial intelligence-driven mobile interpretation of a semi-quantitative cryptococcal antigen lateral flow assay","volume":"15","author":"D Bermejo-Pel\u00e1ez","year":"2024","journal-title":"IMA Fungus."},{"issue":"11","key":"pgph.0005937.ref094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4026","DOI":"10.3390\/s18114026","article-title":"Significant sensitivity improvement for camera-based lateral flow immunoassay readers","volume":"18","author":"L Saisin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)."}],"container-title":["PLOS Global Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0005937","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T18:54:15Z","timestamp":1770922455000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0005937"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Sadia","family":"Shakoor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pgph.0005937","relation":{},"ISSN":["2767-3375"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2767-3375","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]}}}