{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T05:35:53Z","timestamp":1791178553877,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,10,27]],"date-time":"2009-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1256601600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000460","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,10,26]],"date-time":"2009-10-26T17:55:23Z","timestamp":1256579723000},"page":"e460","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":186,"title":["The Global Burden of Trachoma: A Review"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Matthew J.","family":"Burton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David C. W.","family":"Mabey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,10,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.07.041210","article-title":"Global magnitude of visual impairment caused by uncorrected refractive errors in 2004.","volume":"86","author":"S Resnikoff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref2","first-page":"844","article-title":"Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002.","volume":"82","author":"S Resnikoff","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref3","article-title":"Report of the 2nd global scientific meeting on trachoma.","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1975.24.509","article-title":"Studies on the role of the family unit in the transmission of trachoma.","volume":"24","author":"J Barenfanger","year":"1975","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4215","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.03-0107","article-title":"Which members of a community need antibiotics to control trachoma? Conjunctival Chlamydia trachomatis infection load in Gambian villages.","volume":"44","author":"MJ Burton","year":"2003","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.73.4.276","article-title":"Immunopathology of trachomatous conjunctivitis.","volume":"73","author":"AM El-Asrar","year":"1989","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7352","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.72.12.7352-7356.2004","article-title":"Cytokine and fibrogenic gene expression in the conjunctivas of subjects from a Gambian community where trachoma is endemic.","volume":"72","author":"MJ Burton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"key":"ref8","first-page":"477","article-title":"A simple system for the assessment of trachoma and its complications.","volume":"65","author":"B Thylefors","year":"1987","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-5274(02)00291-6","article-title":"T cell responses to Chlamydia trachomatis.","volume":"5","author":"WP Loomis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr Opin Microbiol"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/S0952-7915(02)00361-8","article-title":"The role of IFN-gamma in the outcome of chlamydial infection.","volume":"14","author":"ME Rottenberg","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr Opin Immunol"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268899003076","article-title":"The duration of human ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection is age dependent.","volume":"123","author":"R Bailey","year":"1999","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e341","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000341","article-title":"The natural history of trachoma infection and disease in a Gambian cohort with frequent follow-up.","volume":"2","author":"NC Grassly","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"ref13","article-title":"Trachoma vaccine studies in monkeys.","volume":"63","author":"SP Wang","year":"1967","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022172400042157","article-title":"Trachoma vaccine field trials in The Gambia.","volume":"67","author":"S Sowa","year":"1969","journal-title":"J Hyg (Lond)"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.16.5.895-900.1982","article-title":"Long-term clinical, microbiological, and immunological observations of a volunteer repeatedly infected with Chlamydia trachomatis.","volume":"16","author":"L Hanna","year":"1982","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"ref16","first-page":"271","article-title":"What clinical signs are critical in evaluating the intervention in trachoma?","author":"CR Dawson","year":"1990"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1076\/opep.8.2.137.4158","article-title":"Progression of active trachoma to scarring in a cohort of Tanzanian children.","volume":"8","author":"SK West","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.gene.6364182","article-title":"Risk of trachomatous scarring and trichiasis in Gambians varies with SNP haplotypes at the interferon-gamma and interleukin-10 loci.","volume":"6","author":"A Natividad","year":"2005","journal-title":"Genes Immun"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2350-7-40","article-title":"A coding polymorphism in matrix metalloproteinase 9 reduces risk of scarring sequelae of ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection.","volume":"7","author":"A Natividad","year":"2006","journal-title":"BMC Med Genet"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.gene.6364384","article-title":"Genetic variation at the TNF locus and the risk of severe sequelae of ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection in Gambians.","volume":"8","author":"A Natividad","year":"2007","journal-title":"Genes Immun"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2004.062489","article-title":"A randomised controlled trial of azithromycin following surgery for trachomatous trichiasis in the Gambia.","volume":"89","author":"MJ Burton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref22","first-page":"913","article-title":"Mapping the global distribution of trachoma.","volume":"83","author":"S Polack","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref23","article-title":"Trachoma: a blinding scourge from the Bronze Age to the twenty-first century","author":"HR Taylor","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.73.7.536","article-title":"Trachoma and blindness in the Nile Delta: current patterns and projections for the future in the rural Egyptian population.","volume":"73","author":"P Courtright","year":"1989","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/20.4.1088","article-title":"The epidemiology of trachoma in central Tanzania.","volume":"20","author":"SK West","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2008.08.024","article-title":"Risk factors for trachomatous trichiasis in children: cross-sectional household surveys in Southern Sudan.","volume":"103","author":"J Ngondi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.82.8.930","article-title":"Trachoma in The Gambia.","volume":"82","author":"PJ Dolin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3156.2000.00603.x","article-title":"Review of the evidence base for the \u2018F\u2019 and \u2018E\u2019 components of the SAFE strategy for trachoma control.","volume":"5","author":"PM Emerson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)15891-1","article-title":"Role of flies and provision of latrines in trachoma control: cluster-randomised controlled trial.","volume":"363","author":"PM Emerson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref30","first-page":"55","article-title":"The epidemiology of trachoma predicts more blindness in the future.","volume":"69","author":"J Schachter","year":"1990","journal-title":"Scand J Infect Dis Suppl"},{"key":"ref31","first-page":"115","article-title":"Global data on blindness.","volume":"73","author":"B Thylefors","year":"1995","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref32","article-title":"Guide to trachoma control","author":"CR Dawson","year":"1981"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1076\/opep.10.2.121.13899","article-title":"Estimating the burden and economic impact of trachomatous visual loss.","volume":"10","author":"KD Frick","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00130920","article-title":"The global burden of trachomatous visual impairment: I. Assessing prevalence.","volume":"19","author":"MK Ranson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref35","first-page":"107","article-title":"[Epidemiological surveillance of trachoma: evaluation and perspective].","volume":"69","author":"B Thylefors","year":"1992","journal-title":"Rev Int Trach Pathol Ocul Trop Subtrop Sante Publique"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2008.148494","article-title":"Trachoma: global magnitude of a preventable cause of blindness.","volume":"93","author":"SP Mariotti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref37","article-title":"National Survey on Blindness, Low Vision and Trachoma in Ethiopia","author":"Y Berhane","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e478","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0030478","article-title":"Blinding trachoma in postconflict southern Sudan.","volume":"3","author":"J Ngondi","year":"2006","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1839","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.119.12.1839","article-title":"Trichiasis and disability in a trachoma-endemic area of Tanzania.","volume":"119","author":"KD Frick","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.5_suppl_1.0690001","article-title":"Global burden of trachoma and economics of the disease.","volume":"69","author":"KD Frick","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref41","article-title":"The Global Burden of Disease: a comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from disease, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020","author":"CJL Murray","year":"1996"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e114","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000114","article-title":"Measuring the burden of neglected tropical diseases: the global burden of disease framework.","volume":"1","author":"CD Mathers","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00130921","article-title":"The global burden of trachomatous visual impairment: II. Assessing burden.","volume":"19","author":"TG Evans","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref44","first-page":"335","article-title":"Increase in mortality associated with blindness in rural Africa.","volume":"69","author":"HR Taylor","year":"1991","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(83)90308-5","article-title":"Relationships between mortality, visual acuity and microfilarial load in the area of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme.","volume":"77","author":"B Kirkwood","year":"1983","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref46","article-title":"Global elimination of blinding trachoma.","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref47","article-title":"Achieving community support for trachoma control.","volume":"93.36","author":"V Francis","year":"1993","journal-title":"WHO\/PBL\/"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1002\/ebch.172","article-title":"The Cochrane Library and Trachoma: an overview of reviews.","volume":"2","author":"E Sumamo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Evid Based Child Health"},{"key":"ref49","first-page":"CD004008","article-title":"Interventions for trachoma trichiasis.","author":"D Yorston","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.04-0600","article-title":"Risk factors for postsurgical trichiasis recurrence in a trachoma-endemic area.","volume":"46","author":"ES West","year":"2005","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)12387-5","article-title":"Azithromycin in control of trachoma.","volume":"354","author":"J Schachter","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.80.10.880","article-title":"Cost effectiveness and cost utility of preventing trachomatous visual impairment: lessons from 30 years of trachoma control in Burma.","volume":"80","author":"TG Evans","year":"1996","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1076\/opep.8.2.191.4163","article-title":"Epidemiological, demographic, and economic analyses: measurement of the value of trichiasis surgery in The Gambia.","volume":"8","author":"KD Frick","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1080\/09286580590932761","article-title":"Cost-effectiveness of trachoma control in seven world regions.","volume":"12","author":"RM Baltussen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa040979","article-title":"Mass treatment with single-dose azithromycin for trachoma.","volume":"351","author":"AW Solomon","year":"2004","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)61029-X","article-title":"Re-emergence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection after mass antibiotic treatment of a trachoma-endemic Gambian community: a longitudinal study.","volume":"365","author":"MJ Burton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref57","article-title":"International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision","year":"1992"},{"key":"ref58","article-title":"World Health Report 2004.","year":"2004","journal-title":"Changing History"},{"key":"ref59","article-title":"The Global Burden of Disease: 2004 update.","year":"2008"}],"container-title":["PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000460","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,23]],"date-time":"2020-05-23T07:43:47Z","timestamp":1590219827000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000460"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Simon","family":"Brooker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2009,10,27]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,10,27]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000460","relation":{},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2009,10,27]]}}}