{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T00:51:34Z","timestamp":1789433494982,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,2]],"date-time":"2015-04-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1427932800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003660","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,3]],"date-time":"2015-04-03T16:26:35Z","timestamp":1428078395000},"page":"e0003660","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Distribution and Risk Factors for Plasmodium and Helminth Co-infections: A Cross-Sectional Survey among Children in Bagamoyo District, Coastal Region of Tanzania"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Nahya","family":"Salim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefanie","family":"Knopp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omar","family":"Lweno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ummi","family":"Abdul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ali","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tobias","family":"Schindler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julian","family":"Rothen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Masimba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Denis","family":"Kwaba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alisa S.","family":"Mohammed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabrice","family":"Althaus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salim","family":"Abdulla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcel","family":"Tanner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claudia","family":"Daubenberger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Blaise","family":"Genton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref2","unstructured":"RBM (2012) (Roll Back Malaria) Partnership: Progress and Impact Series 3, 2012. Focus on Mainland Tanzania. Available at: <ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"http:\/\/www.rbm.who.int\/ProgressImpactSeries\/docs\/report10-en.pdf\" xlink:type=\"simple\">http:\/\/www.rbm.who.int\/ProgressImpactSeries\/docs\/report10-en.pdf<\/ext-link>, accessed 7 February 2014."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir844","article-title":"<italic>Plasmodium<\/italic>-helminth coinfection and its sources of heterogeneity across East Africa","volume":"205","author":"SJ Brooker","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiq063","article-title":"Heterogeneities and consequences of <italic>Plasmodium<\/italic> species and hookworm coinfection: a population based study in Uganda","volume":"203","author":"RL Pullan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-3-44","article-title":"Co-infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Schistosoma mansoni and intestinal helminths among schoolchildren in endemic areas of northwestern Tanzania","volume":"3","author":"HD Mazigo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e86510","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0086510","article-title":"Malaria and Helminth Co-Infections in School and Preschool Children: A Cross-Sectional Study in Magu District, North-Western Tanzania","volume":"9","author":"SM Kinung'hi","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(10)73002-5","article-title":"Multiparasitism: a neglected reality on global, regional and local scale","volume":"73","author":"P Steinmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv Parasitol"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(97)00189-6","article-title":"Multiparasite communities in animals and humans: frequency, structure and pathogenic significance","volume":"28","author":"TN Petney","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S144","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.059204","article-title":"Causation and causal inference in epidemiology","volume":"95","author":"KJ Rothman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2008.10.014","article-title":"Spatial heterogeneity of parasite co-infection: Determinants and geostatistical prediction at regional scales","volume":"39","author":"S Brooker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2006.06.007","article-title":"The role of residential location in apparent helminth and malaria associations","volume":"22","author":"M Booth","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends in parasitology"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.77.88","article-title":"Epidemiology of plasmodium-helminth co-infection in Africa: populations at risk, potential impact on anemia, and prospects for combining control","volume":"77","author":"S Brooker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2005.06.011","article-title":"Worms can worsen malaria: towards a new means to roll back malaria?","volume":"21","author":"P Druilhe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1645\/0022-3395(2002)088[0055:IHIAAW]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Intestinal helminth infections are associated with increased incidence of <italic>Plasmodium falciparum<\/italic> malaria in Thailand","volume":"88","author":"M Nacher","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Parasitology"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(03)90117-9","article-title":"Increased frequency of malaria attacks in subjects co-infected by intestinal worms and <italic>Plasmodium falciparum<\/italic> malaria","volume":"97","author":"A Spiegel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-10-259","article-title":"Interactions between worms and malaria: Good worms or bad worms?","volume":"10","author":"M Nacher","year":"2011","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2011.06.007","article-title":"<italic>Plasmodium falciparum<\/italic> and helminth coinfections among schoolchildren in relation to agro-ecosystems in Mvomero District, Tanzania","volume":"120","author":"LE Mboera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4314\/thrb.v14i1.1","article-title":"Mono-parasite infection versus co-infections in Tanzania: the need to revise our research focus","volume":"14","author":"HD Mazigo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tanzania Journal of Health Research"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e297","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040297","article-title":"Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and Elaboration","volume":"4","author":"JP Vandenbroucke","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"ref20","unstructured":"National Bureau of Statistics, NBS (2012). Ministry of Planning, Economy and Empowerment, The United Republic of Tanzania Population and Housing Census 2012. <ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"http:\/\/www.nbs.go.tz\" xlink:type=\"simple\">www.nbs.go.tz<\/ext-link>, accessed 18 November 2014."},{"key":"ref21","unstructured":"Williams J, Dillip A, Smithson P, Hildon Z (CSS report-ihi, 2013) Comparing changes in morbidity and mortality in under-five year olds in Kilombero and Bagamoyo district hospitals."},{"key":"ref22","first-page":"1275","article-title":"Preliminary observations on accessibility and utilisation of water in selected villages in Dodoma Rural and Bagamoyo Districts, Tanzania","volume":"29","author":"L Kusiluka","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2005.08.025","article-title":"Prevalence and impact of water-borne zoonotic pathogens in water, cattle and humans in selected villages in Dodoma Rural and Bagamoyo districts, Tanzania","volume":"30","author":"L Kusiluka","year":"2005","journal-title":"Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1009-1097","article-title":"Large trial to examine parasites&apos; influence on global killers","volume":"15","author":"C Willyard","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"ref25","year":"2012"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-014-0644-7","article-title":"Enterobiasis and strongyloidiasis and associated co-infections and morbidity markers in infants, preschool-and school-aged children from rural coastal Tanzania: a cross-sectional study","volume":"14","author":"N Salim","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref27","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knopp S, Salim N, Schindler T, Karagiannis Voules DA, Rothen J, et al. (2014) Diagnostic Accuracy of Kato\u2013Katz, FLOTAC, Baermann, and PCR Methods for the Detection of Light-Intensity Hookworm and <italic>Strongyloides stercoralis<\/italic> Infections in Tanzania. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0268"},{"key":"ref29","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00025-08","article-title":"Acquired immunity to malaria","volume":"22","author":"DL Doolan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-4758(98)01318-0","article-title":"Patterns in parasite epidemiology: the peak shift","volume":"14","author":"M Woolhouse","year":"1998","journal-title":"Parasitology today"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-10-98","article-title":"Malaria risk factors in north-east Tanzania","volume":"10","author":"P Winskill","year":"2011","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2008.79.185","article-title":"Relationship between exposure, clinical malaria, and age in an area of changing transmission intensity","volume":"79","author":"WP O'Meara","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8988","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008988","article-title":"Age-patterns of malaria vary with severity, transmission intensity and seasonality in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and pooled analysis","volume":"5","author":"I Carneiro","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref35","article-title":"Increase in malaria prevalence and age of at risk population in different areas of Gabon","volume":"12","author":"DP Mawili-Mboumba","year":"2013","journal-title":"Malaria journal"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12374","article-title":"Malaria in school-age children in Africa: an increasingly important challenge","volume":"19","author":"J Nankabirwa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tropical Medicine & International Health"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.77.88","article-title":"Epidemiology of <italic>Plasmodium<\/italic>-helminth co-infection in Africa: populations at risk, potential impact on anemia and prospects for combining control","volume":"77","author":"S Brooker","year":"2007","journal-title":"The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1292","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001292","article-title":"Diagnosis, Clinical Features, and Self-Reported Morbidity of <italic>Strongyloides stercoralis<\/italic> and Hookworm Infection in a Co-Endemic Setting","volume":"5","author":"SL Becker","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021932012000466","article-title":"Will mass drug administration eliminate lymphatic filariasis? Evidence from northern coastal Tanzania","volume":"45","author":"M Parker","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Biosoc Sci"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-13-335","article-title":"Lymphatic filariasis control in Tanzania: effect of six rounds of mass drug administration with ivermectin and albendazole on infection and transmission","volume":"13","author":"PE Simonsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMC infectious diseases"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e696","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000696","article-title":"Lymphatic filariasis control in Tanzania: effect of repeated mass drug administration with ivermectin and albendazole on infection and transmission","volume":"4","author":"PE Simonsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS neglected tropical diseases"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2651","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002651","article-title":"Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH): A Critical Component for Sustainable Soil-Transmitted Helminth and Schistosomiasis Control","volume":"8","author":"SJ Campbell","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e75","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000075","article-title":"Occurrence of <italic>Strongyloides stercoralis<\/italic> in Yunnan Province, China, and comparison of diagnostic methods","volume":"1","author":"P Steinmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1590\/S1413-86702001000300003","article-title":"The prevalence of enteropathy due to strongyloidiasis in Puerto Maldonado (Peruvian Amazon)","volume":"5","author":"J Egido","year":"2001","journal-title":"Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000081099","article-title":"Age-prevalence and household clustering of <italic>Strongyloides stercoralis<\/italic> infection in Jamaica","volume":"110","author":"JF Lindo","year":"1995","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-2294.1","article-title":"High prevalence of <italic>Strongyloides stercoralis<\/italic> among school children in rural C\u00f4te d&apos;Ivoire","volume":"96","author":"D Glinz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Parasitology"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1097\/01.mcg.0000152779.68900.33","article-title":"Intestinal Strongyloidiasis: Recognition, Management, and Determinants of Outcome","volume":"39","author":"R Concha","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2011.05.009","article-title":"The effect of helminth co-infection on malaria in mice: a meta-analysis","volume":"41","author":"SC Knowles","year":"2011","journal-title":"International journal for parasitology"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.17.1.208-217.2004","article-title":"Strongyloides stercoralis in the Immunocompromised Population","volume":"17","author":"PB Keiser","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2008.01.020","article-title":"Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome: an emerging global infectious disease","volume":"102","author":"LA Marcos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2009.02.013","article-title":"Strongyloidiasis\u2013the most neglected of the neglected tropical diseases?","volume":"103","author":"A Olsen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1038\/ni0311-189","article-title":"Challenges in infant immunity: implications for responses to infection and vaccines","volume":"12","author":"M PrabhuDas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature immunology"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e84939","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0084939","article-title":"Enteric Pathogens in Stored Drinking Water and on Caregiver\u2019s Hands in Tanzanian Households with and without Reported Cases of Child Diarrhea","volume":"9","author":"MC Mattioli","year":"2014","journal-title":"PloS one"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1021\/es303878d","article-title":"Hands and water as vectors of diarrheal pathogens in Bagamoyo, Tanzania","volume":"47","author":"MC Mattioli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environmental science & technology"},{"key":"ref55","author":"R Knight","year":"1982"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.35.9.1159","article-title":"<italic>Enterobius vermicularis<\/italic> infection","volume":"35","author":"G Cook","year":"1994","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(04)58004-1","article-title":"Human hookworm infection in the 21st century","volume":"58","author":"S Brooker","year":"2004","journal-title":"Adv Parasitol"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1972","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu351","article-title":"The potential impact of adding ivermectin to a mass treatment intervention to reduce malaria transmission: a modelling study","volume":"210","author":"HC Slater","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003660","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,22]],"date-time":"2019-08-22T22:00:13Z","timestamp":1566511213000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003660"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Nicholas P.","family":"Day","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,2]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,2]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003660","relation":{},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,2]]}}}