{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T17:53:16Z","timestamp":1791568396729,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,3]],"date-time":"2015-12-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1449100800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004212","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,3]],"date-time":"2015-12-03T18:44:52Z","timestamp":1449168292000},"page":"e0004212","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":74,"title":["Environmental Transmission of Typhoid Fever in an Urban Slum"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Adam","family":"Akullian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Ng\u2019eno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alastair I.","family":"Matheson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leonard","family":"Cosmas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Macharia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barry","family":"Fields","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Godfrey","family":"Bigogo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maina","family":"Mugoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grace","family":"John-Stewart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Judd L.","family":"Walson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Wakefield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joel M.","family":"Montgomery","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,3]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"010401","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.01.010401","article-title":"Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever: Systematic review to estimate global morbidity and mortality for 2010","volume":"2","author":"G.C. Buckle","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Glob Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29119","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0029119","article-title":"Population-based incidence of typhoid fever in an urban informal settlement and a rural area in Kenya: implications for typhoid vaccine use in Africa","volume":"7","author":"R.F. Breiman","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1998","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001998","article-title":"Typhoid Fever and its association with environmental factors in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh: a spatial and time-series approach","volume":"7","author":"A.M. Dewan","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.12-0568","article-title":"Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria","volume":"89","author":"F.M. Ngure","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref5","unstructured":"World Health Organization. 2008; Available from: <ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"http:\/\/www.who.int\/immunization\/topics\/typhoid\/en\/index.html\" xlink:type=\"simple\">http:\/\/www.who.int\/immunization\/topics\/typhoid\/en\/index.html<\/ext-link>."},{"issue":"6","key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3156.2001.00734.x","article-title":"Poor food hygiene and housing as risk factors for typhoid fever in Semarang, Indonesia","volume":"6","author":"M.H. Gasem","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"issue":"21","key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2607","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.291.21.2607","article-title":"Risk factors for typhoid and paratyphoid fever in Jakarta, Indonesia","volume":"291","author":"A.M. Vollaard","year":"2004","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268805005583","article-title":"Risk factors for typhoid fever among adult patients in Diyarbakir, Turkey","volume":"134","author":"S. Hosoglu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268811000938","article-title":"Risk factors associated with typhoid fever in children aged 2\u201316 years in Karachi, Pakistan","volume":"140","author":"M.I. Khan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/18.1.254","article-title":"Community-wide epidemiological investigation of a typhoid outbreak in a rural township in Taiwan, Republic of China","volume":"18","author":"C.C. King","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01182-10","article-title":"Selective advantage of resistant strains at trace levels of antibiotics: a simple and ultrasensitive color test for detection of antibiotics and genotoxic agents","volume":"55","author":"A. Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother"},{"issue":"6","key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/146.6.724","article-title":"Precise estimation of the numbers of chronic carriers of Salmonella typhi in Santiago, Chile, an endemic area","volume":"146","author":"M.M. Levine","year":"1982","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2011.10.013","article-title":"Salmonella persistence and transmission strategies","volume":"15","author":"D.M. Monack","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr Opin Microbiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2958.2000.01907.x","article-title":"Host adaptation and the emergence of infectious disease: the Salmonella paradigm","volume":"36","author":"R.A. Kingsley","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mol Microbiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110008","DOI":"10.1098\/rsob.110008","article-title":"Combined high-resolution genotyping and geospatial analysis reveals modes of endemic urban typhoid fever transmission","volume":"1","author":"S. Baker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Open Biol"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-7-289","article-title":"Comparisons of predictors for typhoid and paratyphoid fever in Kolkata","volume":"7","author":"D. Sur","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref17","first-page":"455","article-title":"Association between the incidence of typhoid and paratyphoid fever and meteorological variables in Guizhou, China","volume":"125","author":"L.X. Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chin Med J (Engl)"},{"issue":"6","key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1086\/314766","article-title":"A massive epidemic of multidrug-resistant typhoid fever in Tajikistan associated with consumption of municipal water","volume":"179","author":"J.H. Mermin","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref19","article-title":"Typhoid fever","author":"J. Wain","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"6","key":"ref20","first-page":"49","article-title":"Typhoid vaccines: WHO position paper","volume":"83","year":"2008","journal-title":"Wkly Epidemiol Rec"},{"key":"ref21","unstructured":"Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, <italic>The 2009 Kenya Population and Housing Census Results<\/italic>. 2010: Nairobi, Kenya. p. 34."},{"issue":".","key":"ref22"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e47","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e318276bea0","article-title":"Home-based HIV testing and counseling in rural and urban Kenyan communities","volume":"62","author":"W. Dalal","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16085","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0016085","article-title":"The burden of common infectious disease syndromes at the clinic and household level from population-based surveillance in rural and urban Kenya","volume":"6","author":"D.R. Feikin","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref25","unstructured":"NOAA, 2012."},{"key":"ref26","unstructured":"ESRI, <italic>ArcGIS<\/italic>. 2010: Redlands, CA."},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(00)00342-5","article-title":"Determination of the drainage structure of a watershed using a digital elevation model and a digital river and lake network","volume":"240","author":"R. Turcotte","year":"2001","journal-title":"Journal of Hydrology"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s12403-012-0074-y","article-title":"Modeling the combined influence of host dispersal and waterborne fate and transport on pathogen spread in complex landscapes","volume":"4","author":"A.N. Akullian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Qual Expo Health"},{"issue":"49","key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2009.0523","article-title":"Analytical methods for quantifying environmental connectivity for the control and surveillance of infectious disease spread","volume":"7","author":"J. Remais","year":"2010","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.76.956","article-title":"Bayesian spatial risk prediction of Schistosoma mansoni infection in western Cote d&apos;Ivoire using a remotely-sensed digital elevation model","volume":"76","author":"C. Beck-Worner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"8","key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2006.06.006","article-title":"Mapping the global extent of malaria in 2005","volume":"22","author":"C.A. Guerra","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"ref32","article-title":"Global Surface Summary of the Day\u2014GSOD"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-5-26","article-title":"Method for mapping population-based case-control studies: an application using generalized additive models","volume":"5","author":"T. Webster","year":"2006","journal-title":"International Journal of Health Geographics"},{"key":"ref34","year":"2008"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9868.2010.00749.x","article-title":"Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models","volume":"73","author":"S.N. Wood","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Statistical Methodology)"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/0098-3004(93)90099-Q","article-title":"Splancs: spatial point pattern analysis code in S-Plus","volume":"19","author":"B. Rowlingson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Computers and Geosciences"},{"issue":"15","key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4746","DOI":"10.1021\/es060426z","article-title":"Hydrologic Modeling of Pathogen Fate and Transport","volume":"40","author":"S.M. Dorner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environmental Science & Technology"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1080\/10643380390814497","article-title":"Fate and transport of surface water pathogens in watersheds","volume":"33","author":"C. Ferguson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2006.06.010","article-title":"Transport and fate of manure-borne pathogens: Modeling perspective","volume":"86","author":"Y.A. Pachepsky","year":"2006","journal-title":"Agricultural Water Management"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2004.0984","article-title":"Overland and near-surface transport of Cryptosporidium parvum from vegetated and nonvegetated surfaces","volume":"33","author":"J.R. Trask","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Environmental Quality"},{"issue":"Suppl","key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87S","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.94.s1.10.x","article-title":"Overland flow transport of pathogens from agricultural land receiving faecal wastes","volume":"94","author":"S.F. Tyrrel","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Appl Microbiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0929-1393(94)00039-A","article-title":"Pathogens in Livestock Waste, Their Potential for Movement through Soil and Environmental-Pollution","volume":"2","author":"J.L. Mawdsley","year":"1995","journal-title":"Applied Soil Ecology"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01229","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.01229","article-title":"Fitness benefits in fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella Typhi in the absence of antimicrobial pressure","volume":"2","author":"S. Baker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Elife"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268897008558","article-title":"Risk factors for typhoid fever in an endemic setting, Karachi","volume":"120","author":"S.P. Luby","year":"1998","journal-title":"Pakistan. Epidemiol Infect"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3156.2000.00512.x","article-title":"Review: Domestic hygiene and diarrhoea\u2013pinpointing the problem","volume":"5","author":"V. Curtis","year":"2000","journal-title":"Tropical Medicine & International Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dym148","article-title":"Association between climate variability and hospital visits for non-cholera diarrhoea in Bangladesh: effects and vulnerable groups","volume":"36","author":"M. Hashizume","year":"2007","journal-title":"International Journal of Epidemiology"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwt279","article-title":"Heavy rainfall events and diarrhea incidence: the role of social and environmental factors","volume":"179","author":"E.J. Carlton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.01109155","article-title":"The influence of climate variation and change on diarrheal disease in the Pacific Islands","volume":"109","author":"R.B. Singh","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/20.3.777","article-title":"Seasonal effects on the reported incidence of acute diarrhoeal disease in northeast Thailand","volume":"20","author":"J.V. Pinfold","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"10","key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1210.060051","article-title":"Spatial Epidemiology of Plasmodium vivax, Afghanistan","volume":"12","author":"S. Brooker","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerging Infectious Diseases"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004353","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,4]],"date-time":"2016-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1451865600000}}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004212","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,9]],"date-time":"2020-05-09T08:52:23Z","timestamp":1589014343000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004212"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Ricardo J.","family":"Soares Magalhaes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,3]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,3]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004212","relation":{"correction":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004353","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,3]]}}}