{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T22:54:16Z","timestamp":1792623256237,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]],"date-time":"2021-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616716800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000774","name":"Defense Threat Reduction Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GRANT 12686246_R"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GRANT 12686246_R"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000774","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Camels are increasingly becoming the livestock of choice for pastoralists reeling from effects of climate change in semi-arid and arid parts of Kenya. As the population of camels rises, better understanding of their role in the epidemiology of zoonotic diseases in Kenya is a public health priority. Rift Valley fever (RVF), brucellosis and Q fever are three of the top priority diseases in the country but the involvement of camels in the transmission dynamics of these diseases is poorly understood. We analyzed 120 camel serum samples from northern Kenya to establish seropositivity rates of the three pathogens and to characterize the infecting <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic> species using molecular assays. We found seropositivity of 24.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 16.5\u201331.8%) for <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic>, 20.8% (95% CI: 13.6\u201328.1%) and 14.2% (95% CI: 7.9\u201320.4%) for <jats:italic>Coxiella burnetii<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Rift valley fever virus<\/jats:italic> respectively. We found 27.5% (95% CI: 19.5\u201335.5%) of the animals were seropositive for at least one pathogen and 13.3% (95% CI: 7.2\u201319.4%) were seropositive for at least two pathogens. <jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>melitensis<\/jats:italic> was the only <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic> spp. detected. The high sero-positivity rates are indicative of the endemicity of these pathogens among camel populations and the possible role the species has in the epidemiology of zoonotic diseases. Considering the strong association between human infection and contact with livestock for most zoonotic infections in Kenya, there is immediate need to conduct further research to determine the role of camels in transmission of these zoonoses to other livestock species and humans. This information will be useful for designing more effective surveillance systems and intervention measures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009275","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]],"date-time":"2021-03-26T17:26:45Z","timestamp":1616779605000},"page":"e0009275","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Serological evidence of single and mixed infections of Rift Valley fever virus, Brucella spp. and Coxiella burnetii in dromedary camels in Kenya"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2110-8099","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mathew","family":"Muturi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Akoko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Nthiwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bernard","family":"Chege","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9569-1953","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Richard","family":"Nyamota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1888-4663","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mathew","family":"Mutiiria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Josphat","family":"Maina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5754-0556","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"S. M.","family":"Thumbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7378-0007","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mutono","family":"Nyamai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3190-8543","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Samuel","family":"Kahariri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rinah","family":"Sitawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua","family":"Kimutai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wilson","family":"Kuria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3180-7013","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Athman","family":"Mwatondo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bernard","family":"Bett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e217","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30127-0","article-title":"Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: risk factors and determinants of primary, household, and nosocomial transmission","volume":"18","author":"DS Hui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-019-01413-7","article-title":"A Review of Zoonotic Pathogens of Dromedary Camels.","volume":"16","author":"S Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecohealth."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-018-0076-4","article-title":"Genetic Evidence of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-Cov) and Widespread Seroprevalence among Camels in Kenya.","volume":"33","author":"S Ommeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virol Sin."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-0880","article-title":"No Serologic Evidence of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Infection Among Camel Farmers Exposed to Highly Seropositive Camel Herds: A Household Linked Study, Kenya, 2013","volume":"96","author":"P Munyua","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13570-017-0095-z","article-title":"Camel health management and pastoralists\u2019 knowledge and information on zoonoses and food safety risks in Isiolo County, Kenya.","volume":"7","author":"PO Lamuka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pastoralism."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s13570-014-0013-6","article-title":"Camel rearing replacing cattle production among the Borana community in Isiolo County of Northern Kenya, as climate variability bites.","volume":"4","author":"AW Kagunyu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pastoralism."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref007","first-page":"93","volume-title":"Evaluating Camel Health in Kenya\u2014An Example of Conservation Medicine in Action","author":"SL Deem","year":"2019"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci7030103","article-title":"Zoonotic Pathogens of Dromedary Camels in Kenya: A Systematised Review.","volume":"7","author":"EC Hughes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet Sci."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1007\/s10745-016-9858-1","article-title":"Camels and Climate Resilience: Adaptation in Northern Kenya.","volume":"44","author":"EE Watson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum Ecol Interdiscip J."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0161576","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0161576","article-title":"Prioritization of Zoonotic Diseases in Kenya, 2015.","volume":"11","author":"P Munyua","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref011","first-page":"851","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius): A Possible Threat for Humans and Livestock in North Africa and the Near and Middle East?.","author":"CA Devaux","year":"2020","journal-title":"Frontiers in Veterinary Science"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-014-0924-0","article-title":"Q Fever Risk Across a Dynamic, Heterogeneous Landscape in Laikipia County, Kenya.","volume":"11","author":"W DePuy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecohealth"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12567","article-title":"The sero-epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) across livestock species and herding contexts in Laikipia County, Kenya.","volume":"66","author":"PS Larson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref014","first-page":"1","article-title":"Epidemiological Investigation of a Rift Valley Fever Outbreak in Humans and Livestock in Kenya, 2018.","author":"A Hassan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e66626","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0066626","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever Risk Map Model and Seroprevalence in Selected Wild Ungulates and Camels from Kenya.","volume":"8","author":"SC Britch","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.09-0292","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever Outbreak in Livestock in Kenya, 2006\u20132007","volume":"83","author":"J Macharia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5975","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6975","article-title":"Co-infection alters population dynamics of infectious disease.","volume":"6","author":"H Susi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000447","article-title":"When do co-infections matter?","volume":"31","author":"AJ McArdle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Opin Infect Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e76324","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0076324","article-title":"Parasite co-infections and their impact on survival of indigenous cattle.","volume":"9","author":"SM Thumbi","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1167-9","article-title":"The importance of multiparasitism: examining the consequences of co-infections for human and animal health.","volume":"8","author":"E Vaumourin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref021","unstructured":"R: The R Project for Statistical Computing. [cited 21 Sep 2020]. Available: https:\/\/www.r-project.org\/"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-04898-2_253","volume-title":"International Encyclopedia of Statistical Science","author":"P. Sprent","year":"2011"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref023","unstructured":"L\u00fcdecke D. sjstats: Statistical functions for regression models. R Packag version 014 0. 2018."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref024","first-page":"1N","article-title":"Review of infectious disease of the camel.","volume":"75","author":"B Abbas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet Bull."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref025","first-page":"4","article-title":"Ecological and epidemiological roles of camels: lessons from existing and emerging viral infections contents.","author":"Eve Miguel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Empres Heal."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.33.3.2322","article-title":"Camelid brucellosis: A review","volume":"33","author":"U. Wernery","year":"2014","journal-title":"OIE Rev Sci Tech"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-017-5016-y","article-title":"Brucellosis remains a neglected disease in the developing world: a call for interdisciplinary action.","volume":"18","author":"KA Franc","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2015.10.023","article-title":"Brucellosis in Sub-Saharan Africa: Current challenges for management, diagnosis and control","volume":"165","author":"M Ducrotoy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.11648\/j.sjcm.20170606.13","article-title":"Review on Epidemiology of Camel and Human Brucellosis in East Africa, Igad Member Countries.","volume":"6","author":"W. Zewdie Wakene","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci J Clin Med."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.15-0113","article-title":"Strong Association Between Human and Animal Brucella Seropositivity in a Linked Study in Kenya, 2012\u20132013","volume":"93","author":"EM Osoro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref031","unstructured":"Wanjohi M, Gitao CG, Bebora L. The prevalence of Brucella spp. in camel milk marketed from north Eastern Province, Kenya. 2012."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-016-3532-9","article-title":"Systematic review of brucellosis in Kenya: disease frequency in humans and animals and risk factors for human infection.","volume":"16","author":"J Njeru","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1179\/2047773212Y.0000000020","article-title":"A review on camel brucellosis: a zoonosis sustained by ignorance and indifference.","volume":"106","author":"LD Sprague","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pathog Glob Health"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(02)00055-7","article-title":"A review of camel brucellosis","volume":"55","author":"B Abbas","year":"2002","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref035","first-page":"1551","article-title":"Brucellosis: a neglected zoonosis.","author":"BY Kaltungo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microbiol Res J Int"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2011.05.002","article-title":"Brucellosis in camels","volume":"92","author":"M Gwida","year":"2012","journal-title":"Res Vet Sci"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref037","first-page":"69","article-title":"Adaptation strategies of camels on a thornbush savannah pasture: Comparison with other domestic animals.","volume":"2","author":"T Rutagwenda","year":"1989","journal-title":"Options M\u00e8diterran\u00e9ennes- Ser Semin."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2020.105194","article-title":"Isolation of Brucella melitensis from seronegative camel: potential implications in brucellosis control","volume":"185","author":"M Dadar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-016-2929-9","article-title":"Q fever is an old and neglected zoonotic disease in Kenya: a systematic review.","volume":"16","author":"J Njeru","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12337","article-title":"Serosurvey of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Laikipia County, Kenya.","volume":"64","author":"AS Browne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2787","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002787","article-title":"Epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii Infection in Africa: A OneHealth Systematic Review.","volume":"8","author":"S Vanderburg","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2003.08.004","article-title":"Brucellosis and Q-fever seroprevalences of nomadic pastoralists and their livestock in Chad.","volume":"61","author":"E Schelling","year":"2003","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/S1995-7645(14)60122-X","article-title":"Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever in Saudi Arabia: molecular detection from camel and other domestic livestock","volume":"7","author":"OB Mohammed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Asian Pac J Trop Med"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0192188","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0192188","article-title":"Q fever in Egypt: Epidemiological survey of Coxiella burnetii specific antibodies in cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats and camels.","volume":"13","author":"J Klemmer","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1002\/path.1700340418","article-title":"Enzootic Hepatitis or Rift Valley Fever. An Un-described Virus Disease of Sheep, Cattle and Man from East Africa","volume":"34","author":"R Daubney","year":"1931","journal-title":"J Pathol Bacteriol"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268810001020","article-title":"Rift Valley fever in Kenya: history of epizootics and identification of vulnerable districts","volume":"139","author":"RM MURITHI","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-010715-023819","article-title":"Rift Valley Fever: An Emerging Mosquito-Borne Disease","volume":"61","author":"KJ Linthicum","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu Rev Entomol"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11152 LP","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01519-08","article-title":"Multiple Virus Lineages Sharing Recent Common Ancestry Were Associated with a Large Rift Valley Fever Outbreak among Livestock in Kenya during 2006\u20132007","volume":"82","author":"BH Bird","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s13620-016-0065-6","article-title":"A survey of rift valley fever and associated risk factors among the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries) in Sudan.","volume":"69","author":"MMM Abdallah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ir Vet J"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-014-0726-y","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Rift Valley fever virus infection in camels (dromedaries) in northern Tanzania.","volume":"47","author":"ES Swai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trop Anim Health Prod."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref051","first-page":"28024","article-title":"A systematic review of Rift Valley Fever epidemiology 1931\u20132014.","volume":"5","author":"MO Nanyingi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect Ecol Epidemiol"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref052","first-page":"413","article-title":"The impact of climate change on the epidemiology and control of Rift Valley fever.","volume":"27","author":"V Martin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev Sci Tech Int des \u00e9pizooties."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007506","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007506","article-title":"Positive association between Brucella spp. seroprevalences in livestock and humans from a cross-sectional study in Garissa and Tana River Counties, Kenya.","volume":"13","author":"S Kairu-Wanyoike","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2010.07.006","article-title":"Intraherd correlation coefficients and design effects for bovine viral diarrhoea, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, leptospirosis and neosporosis in cow-calf system herds in North-eastern Mexico.","volume":"96","author":"J Segura","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.3390\/v3050493","article-title":"The pathogenesis of Rift Valley fever.","volume":"3","author":"T Ikegami","year":"2011","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref056","first-page":"1","article-title":"Association between Rift Valley fever virus seroprevalences in livestock and humans and their respective intra-cluster correlation coefficients, Tana River County, Kenya.","volume":"147","author":"B Bett","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.15171\/jcvtr.2019.14","article-title":"Considering the design effect in cluster sampling.","volume":"11","author":"Y Alimohamadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Cardiovasc Thorac Res"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(96)01108-7","article-title":"Intra-cluster correlation coefficients of 20 infections calculated from the results of cluster-sample surveys","volume":"31","author":"MJ Otte","year":"1997","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(97)00189-6","article-title":"Multiparasite communities in animals and humans: frequency, structure and pathogenic significance","volume":"28","author":"TN Petney","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref060","first-page":"2020","article-title":"Pathogen community composition and co-infection patterns in a wild community of rodents.","author":"JL Abbate","year":"2020","journal-title":"bioRxiv."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref061","unstructured":"Cox FEG, Chappell LH. Concomitant infections. 2001."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref062","first-page":"S73","article-title":"Multiple helminth infections in children: impact and control. PARASITOLOGY-CAMBRIDGE-.","volume":"122","author":"LJ Drake","year":"2001"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2017.00341","article-title":"Toxoplasma Co-infection Prevents Th2 Differentiation and Leads to a Helminth-Specific Th1 Response.","volume":"7","author":"N Ahmed","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1623","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001623","article-title":"Innate Immune Response to Rift Valley Fever Virus in Goats.","volume":"6","author":"C Nfon","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3049","article-title":"Molecular pathogenesis of the obligate intracellular bacterium Coxiella burnetii","volume":"11","author":"EJ van Schaik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.4103\/0974-2727.72149","article-title":"Brucellosis: review on the recent trends in pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis.","volume":"2","author":"S Christopher","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Lab Physicians"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2015-04-639617","article-title":"B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma linked to Coxiella burnetii","volume":"127","author":"C Melenotte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"pntd.0009275.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(02)00249-3","article-title":"Brucellosis in sub-Saharan Africa: epidemiology, control and impact","volume":"90","author":"JJ McDermott","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol"}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009275","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]],"date-time":"2021-03-26T17:27:57Z","timestamp":1616779677000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009275"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Tao","family":"Lin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009275","relation":{},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]]}}}