{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T06:09:13Z","timestamp":1791266953499,"version":"4.1.0"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009479","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,8]],"date-time":"2021-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631059200000}}],"reference-count":104,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,19]],"date-time":"2021-07-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Phlebotomine sand flies are the main natural vectors of <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>, which cause visceral and tegumentary tropical diseases worldwide. However, their taxonomy and evolutionary history remain poorly studied. Indeed, as for many human disease vectors, their small size is a challenge for morphological and molecular works. Here, we successfully amplified unbiased copies of whole genome to sequence thousands of restriction-site associated DNA (RAD) markers from single specimens of phlebotomines. RAD markers were used to infer a fully resolved phylogeny of the subgenus <jats:italic>Paraphlebotomus<\/jats:italic> (11 species + 5 outgroups, 32 specimens). The subgenus was not recovered as monophyletic and we describe a new subgenus <jats:italic>Artemievus<\/jats:italic> subg. nov. Depaquit for <jats:italic>Phlebotomus alexandri<\/jats:italic>. We also confirm the validity of <jats:italic>Ph<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>riouxi<\/jats:italic> which is reinstated as valid species. Our analyses suggest that <jats:italic>Paraphlebotomus sensu nov<\/jats:italic>. originated <jats:italic>ca<\/jats:italic> 12.9\u20138.5 Ma and was possibly largely distributed from peri-Mediterranean to Irano-Turanian regions. Its biogeographical history can be summarized into three phases: i) a first split between <jats:italic>Ph<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>riouxi<\/jats:italic> + <jats:italic>Ph<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>chabaudi<\/jats:italic> and other species that may have resulted from the rise of the Saharan belt ca 8.5 Ma; ii) a Messinian vicariant event (7.3\u20135.3 Ma) during which the prolonged drought could have resulted in the divergence of main lineages; iii) a recent radiation event (3\u20132 Ma) that correspond to cycles of wet and dry periods in the Middle East and the East African subregions during the Pleistocene. Interestingly these cycles are also hypothetical drivers of the diversification of rodents, in the burrows of which <jats:italic>Paraphlebotomus<\/jats:italic> larvae develop. By meeting the challenge of sequencing pangenomics markers from single, minute phlebotomines, this work opens new avenues for improving our understanding of the epidemiology of leishmaniases and possibly other human diseases transmitted by arthropod vectors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009479","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,19]],"date-time":"2021-07-19T17:35:45Z","timestamp":1626716145000},"page":"e0009479","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Evolution, systematics and historical biogeography of sand flies of the subgenus Paraphlebotomus (Diptera, Psychodidae, Phlebotomus) inferred using restriction-site associated DNA markers"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8932-4199","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Astrid","family":"Cruaud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7956-8448","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"V\u00e9ronique","family":"Lehrter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guena\u00eblle","family":"Genson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8614-6665","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jean-Yves","family":"Rasplus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6995-0088","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"J\u00e9r\u00f4me","family":"Depaquit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,19]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009479.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.1990.tb00255.x","article-title":"Phlebotomine vectors of the leishmaniases: a review","volume":"4","author":"R. Killick-Kendrick","year":"1990","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"key":"pntd.0009479.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ready PD. Biology of Phlebotomine sand flies as vectors of disease agents. In: Berenbaum MR, editor. Annual Review of Entomology, Vol 58. Annual Review of Entomology. 582013. p. 227\u201350.","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-120811-153557"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009479.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0035671","article-title":"Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence.","volume":"7","author":"J Alvar","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"issue":"10151","key":"pntd.0009479.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31204-2","article-title":"Leishmaniasis.","volume":"392","author":"S Burza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"pntd.0009479.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0712-x","article-title":"Recent advances in phlebotomine sand fly research related to leishmaniasis control.","volume":"8","author":"PA Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors."},{"key":"pntd.0009479.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2016062","article-title":"Can Sergentomyia (Diptera, Psychodidae) play a role in the transmission of mammal-infecting Leishmania?","volume":"23","author":"C Maia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"pntd.0009479.ref007","first-page":"121","article-title":"A taxonomic review of the genus Phlebotomus (Diptera: Psychodidae).","volume":"45","author":"DJ Lewis","year":"1982","journal-title":"Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology."},{"key":"pntd.0009479.ref008","article-title":"An illustrated guide for characters and terminology used in descriptions of Phlebotominae (Diptera, Psychodidae).","volume":"24","author":"EAB Galati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0009479.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02761998000600015","article-title":"Numerical taxonomy of Old World Phlebotominae (Diptera: Psychodidae). 1. 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Restatement of classification upon subgeneric morphological characters.","volume":"93","author":"P Rispail","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009479.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2583.2000.00168.x","article-title":"Phylogenetic relationships of phlebotomine sandflies inferred from small subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA","volume":"9","author":"AM Aransay","year":"2000","journal-title":"Insect Mol Biol"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0009479.ref012","first-page":"849","article-title":"Molecular systematics of Phlebotominae: a pilot study. Paraphyly of the genus Phlebotomus.","volume":"321","author":"J Depaquit","year":"1998","journal-title":"Comptes Rendus De L Academie Des Sciences Serie Iii-Sciences De La Vie-Life Sciences"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0009479.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(88)90142-3","article-title":"Phlebotomus sergenti, a vector of Leishmania tropica in Saudi Arabia.","volume":"83","author":"M Al-Zahrani","year":"1988","journal-title":"Trans Roy Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0009479.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/199166396","article-title":"Leishmania tropica in Morocco. III. 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Hypotheses of dispersion and speciation.","volume":"9","author":"J Depaquit","year":"2000","journal-title":"Insect Mol Biol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009479.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1179\/136485911X12899838683241","article-title":"The sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae, Phlebotominae) in military camps in northern Afghanistan (2007\u20132009), as identified by morphology and DNA \u2019barcoding\u2019.","volume":"105","author":"A Kruger","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology"},{"key":"pntd.0009479.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1111\/syen.12135","article-title":"A phylogeny of sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae), using recent Ethiopian collections and a broad selection of publicly available DNA sequence data.","volume":"40","author":"DM Grace-Lema","year":"2015","journal-title":"Systematic 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