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Sloan Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Sloan Research Fellowship"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Sloan Research Fellowship"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000879","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008982","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OCE-1829509"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE-1829509"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008982","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"King Center on Global Development","award":["Field Research Assistant Program"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Field Research Assistant Program"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n<jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Infectious disease risk is driven by three interrelated components: exposure, hazard, and vulnerability. For schistosomiasis, exposure occurs through contact with water, which is often tied to daily activities. Water contact, however, does not imply risk unless the environmental hazard of snails and parasites is also present in the water. By increasing reliance on hazardous activities and environments, socio-economic vulnerability can hinder reductions in exposure to a hazard. We aimed to quantify the contributions of exposure, hazard, and vulnerability to the presence and intensity of <jats:italic>Schistosoma haematobium<\/jats:italic> re-infection.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n<jats:title>Methodology\/Principal findings<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>In 13 villages along the Senegal River, we collected parasitological data from 821 school-aged children, survey data from 411 households where those children resided, and ecological data from all 24 village water access sites. We fit mixed-effects logistic and negative binomial regressions with indices of exposure, hazard, and vulnerability as explanatory variables of <jats:italic>Schistosoma haematobium<\/jats:italic> presence and intensity, respectively, controlling for demographic variables. Using multi-model inference to calculate the relative importance of each component of risk, we found that hazard (\u01a9w<jats:sub>i =<\/jats:sub> 0.95) was the most important component of <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>haematobium<\/jats:italic> presence, followed by vulnerability (\u01a9w<jats:sub>i<\/jats:sub> = 0.91). Exposure (\u01a9w<jats:sub>i<\/jats:sub> = 1.00) was the most important component of <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>haematobium<\/jats:italic> intensity, followed by hazard (\u01a9w<jats:sub>i<\/jats:sub> = 0.77). Model averaging quantified associations between each infection outcome and indices of exposure, hazard, and vulnerability, revealing a positive association between hazard and infection presence (OR = 1.49, 95% CI 1.12, 1.97), and a positive association between exposure and infection intensity (RR 2.59\u20133.86, depending on the category; all 95% CIs above 1)<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n<jats:title>Conclusions\/Significance<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Our findings underscore the linkages between social (exposure and vulnerability) and environmental (hazard) processes in the acquisition and accumulation of <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>haematobium<\/jats:italic> infection. This approach highlights the importance of implementing both social and environmental interventions to complement mass drug administration.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009806","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,6]],"date-time":"2021-10-06T04:49:35Z","timestamp":1633495775000},"page":"e0009806","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Exposure, hazard, and vulnerability all contribute to Schistosoma haematobium re-infection in northern Senegal"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0880-310X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Andrea J.","family":"Lund","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susanne H.","family":"Sokolow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabel J.","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2738-3139","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Chelsea L.","family":"Wood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0668-4146","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sofia","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5657-8333","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Andrew","family":"Chamberlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9320-0957","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alioune Badara","family":"Sy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M. Moustapha","family":"Sam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Jouanard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne-Marie","family":"Schacht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon","family":"Senghor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Assane","family":"Fall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5806-1637","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Raphael","family":"Ndione","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gilles","family":"Riveau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4186-3369","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Giulio A.","family":"De Leo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7593-214X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"David","family":"L\u00f3pez-Carr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"pntd.0009806.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139177245.005","volume-title":"Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation","author":"O-D Cardona","year":"2012"},{"key":"pntd.0009806.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20160128","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2016.0128","article-title":"Disease Ecology, Health and the Environment: a framework to account for ecological and socio-economic drivers in the control of neglected tropical diseases","volume":"372","author":"A Garchitorena","year":"2017","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci"},{"key":"pntd.0009806.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259504","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1259504","article-title":"Why infectious disease research needs community ecology","volume":"349","author":"PTJ Johnson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"pntd.0009806.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.9806","article-title":"Environmental determinants of infectious disease: A framework for tracking causal links and guiding public health research","volume":"115","author":"JNS Eisenberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environmental Health Perspectives"},{"key":"pntd.0009806.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15051048","article-title":"Reconciling the Entomological Hazard and Disease Risk in the Lyme Disease System","volume":"15","author":"M McClure","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"},{"key":"pntd.0009806.ref006","volume-title":"A dictionary of epidemiology","author":"M. 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