{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T00:55:04Z","timestamp":1781830504645,"version":"3.54.5"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009917","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]],"date-time":"2022-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644278400000}}],"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]],"date-time":"2021-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638316800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008968","name":"national research council sri lanka","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRC18079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRC18079"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008968","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"fair med"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\"><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Melioidosis is a potentially fatal infectious disease caused by<jats:italic>Burkholderia pseudomallei<\/jats:italic>and the disease is endemic in Southeast Asia and Northern Australia. It has been confirmed as endemic in Sri Lanka. Genomic epidemiology of<jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>pseudomallei<\/jats:italic>in Sri Lanka is largely unexplored. This study aims to determine the biogeography and genetic diversity of clinical isolates of<jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>pseudomallei<\/jats:italic>and the phylogenetic and evolutionary relationship of Sri Lankan sequence types (STs) to those found in other endemic regions of Southeast Asia and Oceania.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec002\"><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>The distribution of variably present genetic markers [<jats:italic>Burkholderia<\/jats:italic>intracellular motility A (<jats:italic>bimA)<\/jats:italic>gene variants<jats:italic>bim<\/jats:italic>A<jats:sub>BP<\/jats:sub>\/<jats:italic>bimA<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>BM<\/jats:sub>, filamentous hemagglutinin 3 (<jats:italic>fhaB3)<\/jats:italic>,<jats:italic>Yersinia-<\/jats:italic>like fimbrial (YLF) and<jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>thailandensis<\/jats:italic>-like flagellum and chemotaxis (BTFC) gene clusters and lipopolysaccharide O-antigen type A (LPS type A)] was examined among 310 strains. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) was done for 84 clinical isolates. The phylogenetic and evolutionary relationship of Sri Lankan STs within Sri Lanka and in relation to those found in other endemic regions of Southeast Asia and Oceania were studied using e BURST, PHYLOViZ and minimum evolutionary analysis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec003\"><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The Sri Lankan<jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>pseudomallei<\/jats:italic>population contained a large proportion of the rare BTFC clade (14.5%) and<jats:italic>bimA<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>BM<\/jats:sub>allele variant (18.5%) with differential geographic distribution. Genotypes<jats:italic>fhaB3 and<\/jats:italic>LPSA were found in 80% and 86% respectively. This study reported 43 STs (including 22 novel). e-BURST analysis which include all Sri Lankan STs (71) resulted in four groups, with a large clonal group (group 1) having 46 STs, and 17 singletons. ST1137 was the commonest ST. Several STs were shared with India, Bangladesh and Cambodia.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec004\"><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study demonstrates the usefulness of high-resolution molecular typing to locate isolates within the broad geographical boundaries of<jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>pseudomallei<\/jats:italic>at a global level and reveals that Sri Lankan isolates are intermediate between Southeast Asia and Oceania.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009917","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]],"date-time":"2021-12-01T18:36:52Z","timestamp":1638383812000},"page":"e0009917","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Biogeography and genetic diversity of clinical isolates of Burkholderia pseudomallei in Sri Lanka"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9188-1557","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Himali S.","family":"Jayasinghearachchi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1450-2098","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Enoka M.","family":"Corea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kumari I.","family":"Jayaratne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3997-3876","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Regina A.","family":"Fonseka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thilini A.","family":"Muthugama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jayanthi","family":"Masakorala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ravija YC.","family":"Ramasinghe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5291-9543","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Aruna D.","family":"De Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17107","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.107","article-title":"Melioidosis","volume":"4","author":"WJ Wiersinga","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Primers"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0009917.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0206845","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0206845","article-title":"Burkholderia pseudomallei distribution in Australasia is linked to paleogeographic and anthropogenic history.","volume":"13","author":"AL Baker","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009917.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed3020051","article-title":"Melioidosis in South Asia (India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan and Afghanistan).","volume":"3","author":"C Mukhopadhyay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trop Med Infect Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-706X(99)00066-2","article-title":"Ecology of Burkholderia pseudomallei and the interactions between environmental Burkholderia spp. and human-animal hosts","volume":"74","author":"DAB Dance","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref005","first-page":"3","volume":"21","author":"EM Corea","year":"2018","journal-title":"Melioidosis in Sri Lanka. Trop Med Infect"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009917.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.15-0567","article-title":"Sri Lankan national melioidosis surveillance program uncovers a nationwide distribution of invasive melioidosis","volume":"94","author":"EM Corea","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0009917.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e91682","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0091682","article-title":"Variable virulence factors in Burkholderia pseudomallei (melioidosis) associated with human disease.","volume":"9","author":"DS Sarovich","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009917.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2305.151417","article-title":"Increased neurotropic threat from Burkholderia pseudomallei strains with a B. mallei-like Variation in the bimA Motility Gene, Australia","volume":"23","author":"JL Morris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0009917.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.10-0038","article-title":"Increasing incidence of human melioidosis in Northeast Thailand","volume":"82","author":"D Limmathurotsakul","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0009917.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(19)30303-2","article-title":"Reducing the melioidosis burden: public health, chronic disease prevention, or improved case management?","volume":"19","author":"KB Gibney","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0009917.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3463","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00128-14","article-title":"Distribution of Burkholderia pseudomallei in northern Australia, a land of diversity","volume":"80","author":"E McRobb","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0009917.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007727","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007727","article-title":"Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, is rare but ecologically established and widely dispersed in the environment in Puerto Rico.","volume":"13","author":"CM Hall","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009917.ref013","first-page":"2068","article-title":"Multilocus sequence typing and evolutionary relationships among the causative agents of melioidosis and glanders, Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei.","volume":"41","author":"D Godoy","journal-title":"J Clin Microbio. 2003"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009917.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01725-07","article-title":"Genetic diversity of Burkholderia pseudomallei isolates in Australia","volume":"46","author":"AC Cheng","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009917.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.17-0441","article-title":"Clinical, Bacteriologic, and Geographic Stratification of Melioidosis Emerges from the Sri Lankan National Surveillance Program","volume":"98","author":"HD Sathkumara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.11-0166","article-title":"Molecular characterization of clinical Burkholderia pseudomallei isolates from India","volume":"85","author":"C Mukhopadhyay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0009917.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0006915","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006915","article-title":"Molecular analysis of clinical Burkholderia pseudomallei isolates from southwestern coastal region of India, using multi-locus sequence typing.","volume":"12","author":"A Kamthan","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"33","key":"pntd.0009917.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00645","DOI":"10.1128\/MRA.00645-19","article-title":"Whole-Genome Sequences of Eight Clinical Isolates of Burkholderia pseudomallei from Melioidosis Patients in Eastern Sri Lanka.","volume":"8","author":"HS Jayasinghearachchi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol Resour Announc"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1590\/S0036-46652006000500001","article-title":"PCR-based identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei.","volume":"48","author":"A Merritt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009917.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0006193","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006193","article-title":"Presence of B. thailandensis and B. thailandensis expressing B. pseudomallei-like capsular polysaccharide in Thailand, and their associations with serological response to B. pseudomallei","volume":"12","author":"V Hantrakun","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9044","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.01264-07","article-title":"A horizontal gene transfer event defines two distinct groups within Burkholderia pseudomallei that have dissimilar geographic distributions","volume":"189","author":"A Tuanyok","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Bacteriol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009917.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1453","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001453","article-title":"The genetic and molecular basis of O-antigenic diversity in Burkholderia pseudomallei lipopolysaccharide","volume":"6","author":"A Tuanyok","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0009917.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2059","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.06737-11","article-title":"Comparison of TaqMan PCR assays for detection of the melioidosis agent Burkholderia pseudomallei in clinical specimens.","volume":"50","author":"M Kaestli","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Clin Microbio"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref024","article-title":"Nonclonal Burkholderia pseudomallei population in melioidosis case cluster, Sri Lanka","author":"HS Jayasinghearachchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009917.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.186.5.1518-1530.2004","article-title":"eBURST: inferring patterns of evolutionary descent among clusters of related bacterial genotypes from multilocus sequence typing data","volume":"186","author":"EJ Feil","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Bacteriol"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btw582","article-title":"Vaz, C. PHYLOViZ 2.0: providing scalable data integration and visualization for multiple phylogenetic inference methods","volume":"33","author":"M Nascimento","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref027","first-page":"512","article-title":"Estimation of the number of nucleotide substitutions in the control region of mitochondrial DNA in humans and chimpanzees","volume":"10","author":"K. Tamura","year":"1993","journal-title":"Molecular Biology and Evolution"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195135848.001.0001","volume-title":"Molecular evolution and phylogenetics.","author":"M Nei","year":"2000"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref029","first-page":"406","article-title":"The neighbor-joining method: A new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees","volume":"4","author":"N Saitou","year":"1987","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0009917.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msy096","article-title":"MEGA X: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis across Computing Platforms","volume":"35","author":"S Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3299","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msx248","article-title":"DnaSP v6. DNA sequence polymorphism analysis of large data sets","volume":"34","author":"J Rozas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0009917.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0168331","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0168331","article-title":"Unravelling the Molecular Epidemiology and Genetic Diversity among Burkholderia pseudomallei Isolates from South India Using Multi-Locus Sequence Typing.","volume":"1911","author":"C Tellapragada","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0009917.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007369","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007369","article-title":"Tracing the environmental footprint of the Burkholderia pseudomallei lipopolysaccharide genotypes in the tropical \"Top End\" of the Northern Territory, Australia.","volume":"13","author":"JR Webb","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0009917.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-9268(94)90041-8","article-title":"The Precambrian of Sri Lanka: a historical review.","volume":"66","author":"PG Cooray","year":"1994","journal-title":"Precambrian Res"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009917.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007312","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007312","article-title":"Implications of environmental and pathogen-specific determinants on clinical presentations and disease outcome in melioidosis patients.","volume":"13","author":"T Shaw","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009917.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02574-14","article-title":"Whole-genome sequencing confirms that Burkholderia pseudomallei multilocus sequence types common to both Cambodia and Australia are due to homoplasy","volume":"53","author":"B De Smet","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009917.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1086\/314342","article-title":"Sri Lanka\u2013Madagascar Gondwana Linkage: Evidence for a Pan-African Mineral Belt.","volume":"107","author":"CB Dissanayake","year":"1999","journal-title":"The J Geol"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009917","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,8]],"date-time":"2022-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644278400000}}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009917","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,13]],"date-time":"2023-11-13T13:04:26Z","timestamp":1699880666000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009917"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Apichai","family":"Tuanyok","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009917","relation":{"new_version":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009917","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]]}}}