{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T11:13:40Z","timestamp":1788347620695,"version":"build-2803163510"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009918","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,30]],"date-time":"2021-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638230400000}}],"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]],"date-time":"2021-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CGIAR Trust Fund"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["OPP1127286"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OPP1127286"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"BBSRC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["BBS\/E\/D\/30002275"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BBS\/E\/D\/30002275"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n<jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Tanzania is among the tropical countries of Sub-Saharan Africa with the environmental conditions favorable for transmission of <jats:italic>Leptospira<\/jats:italic>. Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonotic disease, and although there are several published reports from Tanzania, the epidemiology, genetic diversity of <jats:italic>Leptospira<\/jats:italic> and its host range are poorly understood.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n<jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>We conducted a comprehensive review of human and animal leptospirosis within the 26 regions of the Tanzanian mainland. Literature searches for the review were conducted in PubMed and Google Scholar. We further manually identified studies from reference lists among retrieved studies from the preliminary search.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n<jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>We identified thirty-four studies describing leptospirosis in humans (n = 16), animals (n = 14) and in both (n = 4). The number of studies varied significantly across regions. Most of the studies were conducted in Morogoro (n = 16) followed by Kilimanjaro (n = 9) and Tanga (n = 5). There were a range of study designs with cross-sectional prevalence studies (n = 18), studies on leptospirosis in febrile patients (n = 13), a case control study in cattle (n = 1) and studies identifying novel serovars (n = 2). The most utilized diagnostic tool was the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) which detected antibodies to 17 <jats:italic>Leptospira<\/jats:italic> serogroups in humans and animals. The <jats:italic>Leptospira<\/jats:italic> serogroups with the most diverse hosts were Icterohaemorrhagiae (n = 11), Grippotyphosa (n = 10), Sejroe (n = 10), Pomona (n = 9) and Ballum (n = 8). The reported prevalence of <jats:italic>Leptospira<\/jats:italic> antibodies in humans ranged from 0.3\u201329.9% and risk factors were associated with occupational animal contact. Many potential reservoir hosts were identified with the most common being rodents and cattle.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec004\">\n<jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Leptospirosis is prevalent in humans and animals in Tanzania, although there is regional and host variation in the reports. Many regions do not have information about the disease in either humans or their animal reservoirs. More studies are required to understand human leptospirosis determinants and the role of livestock in leptospirosis transmission to humans for the development of appropriate control strategies.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009918","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]],"date-time":"2021-11-16T18:34:59Z","timestamp":1637087699000},"page":"e0009918","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Epidemiology of leptospirosis in Tanzania: A review of the current status, serogroup diversity and reservoirs"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4106-9579","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Shabani Kiyabo","family":"Motto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriel Mkilema","family":"Shirima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barend Mark","family":"de Clare Bronsvoort","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth Anne Jessie","family":"Cook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001","article-title":"Leptospirosis.","volume":"14","author":"PN Levett","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clinical Microbiology Reviews"},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.2147\/RRTM.S102543","article-title":"Leptospirosis: risk factors and management challenges in developing countries.","volume":"7","author":"C Goarant","year":"2016","journal-title":"Research and Reports in Tropical Medicine"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009918.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1086\/314424","article-title":"Epidemic leptospirosis associated with pulmonary hemorrhage\u2014Nicaragua, 1995","volume":"178","author":"RT Trevejo","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Infectious Diseases"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0009918.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0004122","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004122","article-title":"Global Burden of Leptospirosis: Estimated in Terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years.","volume":"9","author":"PR Torgerson","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23","DOI":"10.1590\/s1678-9946201860023","article-title":"Pathology and pathogenesis of human leptospirosis: A commented review.","volume":"60","author":"T De Brito","year":"2018","journal-title":"Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo"},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2013.03.001","article-title":"Laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis: A challenge.","volume":"46","author":"D Musso","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection."},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref007","unstructured":"WHO. Human leptospirosis: guidance for diagnosis, surveillance and control. 2003."},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref008","first-page":"199","article-title":"Leptospirosis diagnosis: Competancy of various laboratory tests.","volume":"8","author":"SV Budihal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0009918.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003898","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003898","article-title":"Global Morbidity and Mortality of Leptospirosis: A Systematic Review.","volume":"9","author":"F Costa","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0009918.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006444","article-title":"Assessment of animal hosts of pathogenic Leptospira in northern Tanzania.","volume":"12","author":"KJ Allan","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0009918.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003607","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003607","article-title":"Predominant Leptospiral Serogroups Circulating among Humans, Livestock and Wildlife in Katavi-Rukwa Ecosystem, Tanzania.","volume":"9","author":"JA Assenga","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007499","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007499","article-title":"Leptospira infection in rats: A literature review of global prevalence and distribution.","volume":"13","author":"K Boey","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases"},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.23.2.1503","article-title":"Emerging or re-emerging bacterial zoonotic diseases: Bartonellosis, leptospirosis, Lyme borreliosis, plague.","volume":"23","author":"R Higgins","year":"2004","journal-title":"OIE Revue Scientifique et Technique"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009918.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007270","article-title":"Revisiting the taxonomy and evolution of pathogenicity of the genus Leptospira through the prism of genomics","volume":"13","author":"AT Vincent","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases"},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref015","first-page":"97","article-title":"Leptospirosis in animals and humans in selected areas of Tanzania","volume":"127","author":"RS Machang\u2019u","year":"1997","journal-title":"Belgian Journal of Zoology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009918.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4314\/thrb.v16i1.4","article-title":"Seroprevalence of leptospira infection in bats roosting in human settlements in Morogoro municipality in Tanzania.","volume":"16","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tanzania Journal of Health Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009918.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4314\/thrb.v16i2.7","article-title":"Leptospira infections in freshwater fish in Morogoro Tanzania: A hidden public health threat","volume":"16","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tanzania Journal of Health Research"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0009918.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004251","article-title":"Leptospira Serovars for Diagnosis of Leptospirosis in Humans and Animals in Africa: Common Leptospira Isolates and Reservoir Hosts.","volume":"9","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0009918.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002589","article-title":"Estimating Leptospirosis Incidence Using Hospital-Based Surveillance and a Population-Based Health Care Utilization Survey in Tanzania.","volume":"7","author":"HM Biggs","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0009918.ref020","first-page":"1","article-title":"Comparison of the Estimated Incidence of Acute Leptospirosis in the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania between 2007\u201308 and 2012\u201314.","volume":"10","author":"MJ Maze","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0009918.ref021","first-page":"1","article-title":"Risk factors for human acute leptospirosis in northern Tanzania.","volume":"12","author":"MJ Maze","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0009918.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.19-0703","article-title":"Molecular detection and typing of pathogenic leptospira in febrile patients and phylogenetic comparison with leptospira detected among animals in Tanzania","volume":"103","author":"KJ Allan","year":"2020","journal-title":"American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0009918.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.08.031","article-title":"Causes of fever in Tanzanian adults attending outpatient clinics: a prospective cohort study","volume":"27","author":"N Boillat-Blanco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clinical Microbiology and Infection"},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref024","unstructured":"Muller S. Molecular epidemiology of Leptospira species among Agropastoral communities living in Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem, Tanzania. 2015;"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0009918.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0189712","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0189712","article-title":"A diagnostic and epidemiologic investigation of acute febrile illness (AFI) in Kilombero, Tanzania.","volume":"12","author":"C Hercik","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009918.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1588-x","article-title":"Human leptospirosis in Tanzania: sequencing and phylogenetic analysis confirm that pathogenic Leptospira species circulate among agro-pastoralists living in Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem.","volume":"16","author":"SK Muller","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Infectious Diseases."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009918.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.11-0176","article-title":"Leptospirosis among hospitalized febrile patients in northern Tanzania","volume":"85","author":"HM Biggs","year":"2011","journal-title":"American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0009918.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2324","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002324","article-title":"Etiology of Severe Non-malaria Febrile Illness in Northern Tanzania: A Prospective Cohort Study.","volume":"7","author":"JA Crump","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref029","volume-title":"The impact of leptospirosis in Northern Tanzania","author":"MJ Maze","year":"2019"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0009918.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2012.1205","article-title":"Leptospirosis and human immunodeficiency virus co-infection among febrile inpatients in northern Tanzania.","volume":"13","author":"HM Biggs","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases."},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009918.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007225","article-title":"Leptospirosis in sugarcane plantation and fishing communities in Kagera northwestern Tanzania.","volume":"13","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0009918.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006600","article-title":"Seroposotivity of Brucella spp. and Leptospira spp. antibodies among abattoir workers and meat vendors in the city of Mwanza, Tanzania: A call for one health approach control strategies.","volume":"12","author":"MM Mirambo","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0009918.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1179\/000349809X12554106963393","article-title":"Risk factors associated with the seroprevalence of leptospirosis, amongst at-risk groups in and around Tanga city, Tanzania","volume":"103","author":"L Schoonman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009918.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003750","article-title":"Prevalence of Bacterial Febrile Illnesses in Children in Kilosa District, Tanzania.","volume":"9","author":"B Chipwaza","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"issue":"2018","key":"pntd.0009918.ref035","article-title":"Small Mammals in Fenced Houses as Source of Leptospirosis to Livestock Pets animals and Humans in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania.","volume":"36","author":"A Katakweba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tanzania Veterinary Association Proceedings"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009918.ref036","first-page":"119","article-title":"Prevalence of haemoparasites, leptospires and coccobacilli with potential for human infection in the blood of rodents and shrews from selected localities in Tanzania, Namibia and Swaziland.","volume":"47","author":"AAS Katakweba","year":"2012","journal-title":"African Zoology."},{"issue":"SUPPL.1","key":"pntd.0009918.ref037","first-page":"17","article-title":"Pcr detection of Leptospira DNA in rodents and insectivores from Tanzania","volume":"135","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2005","journal-title":"Belgian Journal of Zoology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0009918.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4314\/thrb.v16i3.11","article-title":"Prevalence of leptospirosis and toxoplasmosis: A study of rodents and shrews in cultivated and fallow land, Morogoro rural district, Tanzania.","volume":"16","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tanzania Journal of Health Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009918.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.4102\/jsava.v79i2.250","article-title":"Investigation of a syndrome characterised by passage of red urine in smallholder dairy cattle in East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania.","volume":"79","author":"ED Karimuribo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of the South African Veterinary Association"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0009918.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-010-9607-1","article-title":"Herd- and animal-level risk factors for bovine leptospirosis in Tanga region of Tanzania.","volume":"42","author":"L Schoonman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009918.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S2221-1691(11)60190-1","article-title":"A survey of zoonotic diseases in trade cattle slaughtered at Tanga city abattoir: A cause of public health concern.","volume":"2","author":"ES Swai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine"},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1214482","article-title":"Beyond Malaria\u2014Causes of Fever in Outpatient Tanzanian Children.","volume":"370","author":"V D\u2019Acremont","year":"2014","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009918.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.17-0421","article-title":"A combined syndromic approach to examine viral, bacterial, and parasitic agents among febrile patients: A pilot study in Kilombero, Tanzania","volume":"98","author":"C Hercik","year":"2018","journal-title":"American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009918.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.femsim.2004.02.002","article-title":"Serological and molecular characterization of leptospira serovar Kenya from captive African giant pouched rats (Cricetomys gambianus) from Morogoro Tanzania.","volume":"41","author":"RS Machang\u2019u","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0009918.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1099\/ijs.0.63278-0","article-title":"New Leptospira serovar Sokoine of serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae from cattle in Tanzania","volume":"56","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2006","journal-title":"International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0009918.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-009-9455-z","article-title":"A microbiological and serological study of leptospirosis among pigs in the Morogoro municipality, Tanzania.","volume":"42","author":"MJ Kessy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production."},{"issue":"21","key":"pntd.0009918.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.5897\/AJMR2018.8810","article-title":"Seroprevalence of canine leptospirosis, in Urban and Periurban, Morogoro, Tanzania.","volume":"12","author":"K Said","year":"2018","journal-title":"African Journal of Microbiology Research"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0009918.ref048","article-title":"Risk factors for leptospirosis seropositivity in slaughterhouse workers in western Kenya.","volume":"74","author":"EAJ Cook","year":"2017","journal-title":"Occupational and Environmental Medicine"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0009918.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004858","article-title":"Leptospira Seroprevalence and Risk Factors in Health Centre Patients in Hoima District, Western Uganda.","volume":"10","author":"A Dreyfus","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009918.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2018.10.137","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of rapid diagnostic tests for the early detection of leptospirosis","volume":"12","author":"SN Alia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Infection and Public Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009918.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0364-2016","article-title":"A duplex endpoint PCR assay for rapid detection and differentiation of Leptospira strains","volume":"50","author":"D Benacer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0009918.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1136\/vetreco-2015-000148","article-title":"Serological diagnosis of Leptospirosis in bovine serum samples using a microsphere immunoassay.","volume":"3","author":"SJ Wynwood","year":"2016","journal-title":"Veterinary Record Open"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0009918.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0129236","article-title":"Diagnosis of leptospirosis: Comparison between microscopic agglutination test, IgM-ELISA and IgM rapid immunochromatography test.","volume":"10","author":"R Niloofa","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0009918.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed5040154","article-title":"Low prevalence of leptospira carriage in rodents in leptospirosis-endemic northeastern Thailand","volume":"5","author":"P Krairojananan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease"},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref055","unstructured":"Maziku M, Gebru G, Stapleton J. aalinait. 2017;1\u20134."},{"issue":"February","key":"pntd.0009918.ref056","first-page":"1","article-title":"Leptospira Seroprevalence Among Ugandan Slaughter Cattle: Comparison of Sero-Status With Renal Leptospira Infection","volume":"7","author":"L Alinaitwe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Frontiers in Veterinary Science"},{"issue":"175","key":"pntd.0009918.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2020.0964","article-title":"Still \u201cdairy farm fever\u201d? A Bayesian model for leptospirosis notification data in New Zealand.","volume":"18","author":"J Benschop","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Society Interface."},{"key":"pntd.0009918.ref058","first-page":"1","article-title":"Leptospirosis in Tanzania: a neglected cause of febrile illness that Needs attention of the health system.","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2017","journal-title":"Policy Brief."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0009918.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2016.31.2.183","article-title":"Clinical evaluation of rapid diagnostic test kit using the polysaccharide as a genus-Specific diagnostic antigen for leptospirosis in Korea, Bulgaria, and Argentina","volume":"31","author":"JW Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Korean Medical Science"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009918","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,30]],"date-time":"2021-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638230400000}}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009918","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,30]],"date-time":"2021-11-30T19:39:23Z","timestamp":1638301163000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009918"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Alan J. A.","family":"McBride","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009918","relation":{"new_version":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009918","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]}}}