{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T11:20:36Z","timestamp":1790162436085,"version":"4.1.0"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010222","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,12]],"date-time":"2022-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657584000000}}],"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,29]],"date-time":"2022-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656460800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1017770"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1017770"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OPP1104516"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OPP1104516"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BB\/S01375X\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/S01375X\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BB\/P005888\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/P005888\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BB\/L019035\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/L019035\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Tsetse flies (\n                      <jats:italic>Glossina<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) transmit\n                      <jats:italic>Trypanosoma brucei gambiense<\/jats:italic>\n                      which causes Gambian human African trypanosomiasis (gHAT) in Central and West Africa. Several countries use Tiny Targets, comprising insecticide-treated panels of material which attract and kill tsetse, as part of their national programmes to eliminate gHAT. We studied how the scale and arrangement of target deployment affected the efficacy of control.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n                    <jats:title>Methodology and principal findings<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Between 2012 and 2016, Tiny Targets were deployed biannually along the larger rivers of Arua, Maracha, Koboko and Yumbe districts in North West Uganda with the aim of reducing the abundance of tsetse to interrupt transmission. The extent of these deployments increased from ~250 km\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      in 2012 to ~1600 km\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      in 2015. The impact of Tiny Targets on tsetse populations was assessed by analysing catches of tsetse from a network of monitoring traps; sub-samples of captured tsetse were dissected to estimate their age and infection status. In addition, the condition of 780 targets (~195\/district) was assessed for up to six months after deployment. In each district, mean daily catches of tsetse (\n                      <jats:italic>G<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                      <jats:italic>fuscipes fuscipes<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) from monitoring traps declined significantly by &gt;80% following the deployment of targets. The reduction was apparent for several kilometres on adjacent lengths of the same river but not in other rivers a kilometre or so away. Expansion of the operational area did not always produce higher levels of suppression or detectable change in the age structure or infection rates of the population, perhaps due to the failure to treat the smaller streams and\/or invasion from adjacent untreated areas. The median effective life of a Tiny Target was 61 (41.8\u201380.2, 95% CI) days.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Scaling-up of tsetse control reduced the population of tsetse by &gt;80% across the intervention area. Even better control might be achievable by tackling invasion of flies from infested areas within and outside the current intervention area. This might involve deploying more targets, especially along smaller rivers, and extending the effective life of Tiny Targets.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010222","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,29]],"date-time":"2022-06-29T13:41:26Z","timestamp":1656510086000},"page":"e0010222","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Scaling up of tsetse control to eliminate Gambian sleeping sickness in northern Uganda"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Andrew","family":"Hope","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Albert","family":"Mugenyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johan","family":"Esterhuizen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Inaki","family":"Tirados","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucas","family":"Cunningham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gala","family":"Garrod","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mike J.","family":"Lehane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua","family":"Longbottom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"TN Clement","family":"Mangwiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mercy","family":"Opiyo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle","family":"Stanton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9550-4030","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Steve J.","family":"Torr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Glyn A.","family":"Vale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles","family":"Waiswa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Selby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,29]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010222.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0010047","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010047","article-title":"The elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: Achievements in relation to WHO road map targets for 2020","volume":"16","author":"JR Franco","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"},{"key":"pntd.0010222.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1079\/9780851994758.0139","volume-title":"The Trypanosomiases","author":"D Rogers","year":"2004"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010222.ref003","article-title":"Predicting the Impact of Intervention Strategies for Sleeping Sickness in Two High-Endemicity Health Zones of the Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"11","author":"KS Rock","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS neglected tropical diseases"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0010222.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005792","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005792","article-title":"Adding tsetse control to medical activities contributes to decreasing transmission of sleeping sickness in the Mandoul focus (Chad)","volume":"11","author":"MH Mahamat","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0010222.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0008288","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008288","article-title":"Assessing the effect of insecticide-treated cattle on tsetse abundance and trypanosome transmission at the wildlife-livestock interface in Serengeti, Tanzania","volume":"14","author":"JS Lord","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010222.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1615","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001615","article-title":"Modeling the control of trypanosomiasis using trypanocides or insecticide-treated livestock","volume":"6","author":"JW Hargrove","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0010222.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2005.08.021","article-title":"Towards a rational policy for dealing with tsetse","volume":"21","author":"SJ Torr","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0010222.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1360","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001360","article-title":"Is the even distribution of insecticide-treated cattle essential for tsetse control? Modelling the impact of baits in heterogeneous environments","volume":"5","author":"SJ Torr","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010222.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.2307\/3962","article-title":"Study of a Natural-Population of Glossina-Fuscipes-Fuscipes Newstead and a Model of Fly Movement","volume":"46","author":"D. Rogers","year":"1977","journal-title":"J Anim Ecol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010222.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2901","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002901","article-title":"Explaining the host-finding behavior of blood-sucking insects: computerized simulation of the effects of habitat geometry on tsetse fly movement","volume":"8","author":"GA Vale","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010222.ref011","first-page":"403","article-title":"The use of small plots to study populations of tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae)\u2014difficulties associated with populations dipsersal","volume":"5","author":"GA Vale","year":"1984","journal-title":"Insect Sci Appl"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010222.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.1988.tb00184.x","article-title":"Tsetse: the limits to population growth","volume":"2","author":"JW Hargrove","year":"1988","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0010222.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003822","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003822","article-title":"Tsetse Control and Gambian Sleeping Sickness; Implications for Control Strategy","volume":"9","author":"I Tirados","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0010222.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e474","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000474","article-title":"Improving the cost-effectiveness of artificial visual baits for controlling the tsetse fly Glossina fuscipes fuscipes","volume":"3","author":"JM Lindh","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010222.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003624","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003624","article-title":"Costs of using \"tiny targets\" to control Glossina fuscipes fuscipes, a vector of gambiense sleeping sickness in Arua District of Uganda","volume":"9","author":"AP Shaw","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0010222.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003727","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003727","article-title":"Reducing Human-Tsetse Contact Significantly Enhances the Efficacy of Sleeping Sickness Active Screening Campaigns: A Promising Result in the Context of Elimination","volume":"9","author":"F Courtin","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0010222.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0008270","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008270","article-title":"Impact of tiny targets on Glossina fuscipes quanzensis, the primary vector of human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo","volume":"14","author":"I Tirados","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010222.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0009404","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009404","article-title":"Use of vector control to protect people from sleeping sickness in the focus of Bonon (Cote d\u2019Ivoire)","volume":"15","author":"D Kaba","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010222.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2005.01398.x","article-title":"[Human African trypanosomiasis: urban transmission in the focus of Bonon (Cote d\u2019Ivoire)]","volume":"10","author":"F Courtin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"pntd.0010222.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04889-x","article-title":"Estimating the impact of Tiny Targets in reducing the incidence of gambiense sleeping sickness in the North West Uganda focus","volume":"14","author":"P Bessell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasites & Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010222.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005162","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005162","article-title":"Predicting the Impact of Intervention Strategies for Sleeping Sickness in Two High-Endemicity Health Zones of the Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"11","author":"KS Rock","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010222.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-2922-5","article-title":"The development of high resolution maps of tsetse abundance to guide interventions against human African trypanosomiasis in northern Uganda","volume":"11","author":"MC Stanton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010222.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002022","article-title":"Release-recapture studies confirm dispersal of Glossina palpalis gambiensis between river basins in Mali","volume":"7","author":"MJ Vreysen","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5\u20136","key":"pntd.0010222.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(01)00148-5","article-title":"Comparing apples and oranges\u2014model-based assessment of different tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis control strategies","volume":"31","author":"JJ McDermott","year":"2001","journal-title":"International Journal for Parasitology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010222.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007485300016060","article-title":"Age distributions and reproductive status of declining and stationary populations of Glossina pallidipes Austen (Diptera: Glossinidae) in Zimbabwe","volume":"78","author":"J Van Sickle","year":"1988","journal-title":"Bulletin of Entomological Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010222.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-5-109","article-title":"The life cycle of Trypanosoma (Nannomonas) congolense in the tsetse fly","volume":"5","author":"L Peacock","year":"2012","journal-title":"Parasites & Vectors"},{"key":"pntd.0010222.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000064933","article-title":"The kinetics of maturation of trypanosome infections in tsetse","volume":"111","author":"C Dale","year":"1995","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0010222.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0008738","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008738","article-title":"Trypa-NO! contributes to the elimination of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis by combining tsetse control with \"screen, diagnose and treat\" using innovative tools and strategies","volume":"14","author":"JM Ndung\u2019u","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0010222.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2579","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002579","article-title":"Community acceptance of tsetse control baits: a qualitative study in Arua District, North West Uganda","volume":"7","author":"V Kovacic","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010222.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.2005.00573.x","article-title":"User-friendly models of the costs and efficacy of tsetse control: application to sterilizing and insecticidal techniques","volume":"19","author":"GA Vale","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"key":"pntd.0010222.ref031","unstructured":"WHO. Global Health Observatory data repository\u2014Human African Trypanosomiasis [Internet] 2020 [cited 2022 3 Feb 2022]. Available from: http:\/\/apps.who.int\/gho\/data\/node.main.A1635?lang=en."},{"issue":"180227","key":"pntd.0010222.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180227","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2018.227","article-title":"Global distribution data for cattle, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens and ducks in 2010","volume":"5","author":"M Gilbert","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Data"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010222.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2915.1998.00097.x","article-title":"Host preferences of tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae) based on bloodmeal identifications","volume":"12","author":"PH Clausen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010222.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1661","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001661","article-title":"Optimizing the colour and fabric of targets for the control of the tsetse fly Glossina fuscipes fuscipes","volume":"6","author":"JM Lindh","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010222.ref035","first-page":"61","article-title":"The pyramidal trap for sampling and controlling tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossindae) comparative trials and descriptions of new collecting techniques","volume":"37","author":"JP Gouteux","year":"1986","journal-title":"Tropical Medicine and Parasitology"},{"key":"pntd.0010222.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007485300048331","article-title":"Age determination for female tsetse flies and the age compositions of samples of Glossina pallidipes Aust., G. palpalis fuscipes Newst. and G. brevipalpis Newst","volume":"53","author":"DS Saunders","year":"1962","journal-title":"Bulletin of Entomological Research"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010222.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007485300028352","article-title":"The Trypanosome Infections of Tsetse-flies in Northern Nigeria and a new Method of Estimation","volume":"14","author":"L Lloyd","year":"1924","journal-title":"Bulletin of Entomological Research"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010222.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007737","article-title":"Evidence of the absence of human African trypanosomiasis in two northern districts of Uganda: Analyses of cattle, pigs and tsetse flies for the presence of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense","volume":"14","author":"LJ Cunningham","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLOS NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASES"},{"key":"pntd.0010222.ref039","volume-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing","author":"TC R","year":"2020"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010222.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007485300016059","article-title":"Odor-Baited Targets to Control Tsetse Flies, Glossina Spp (Diptera, Glossinidae), in Zimbabwe","volume":"78","author":"GA Vale","year":"1988","journal-title":"Bulletin of Entomological Research"},{"key":"pntd.0010222.ref041","first-page":"509","volume-title":"Development of bait technology to control tsetse","author":"GA Vale","year":"2004"},{"key":"pntd.0010222.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1121-x","article-title":"Evaluating long-term effectiveness of sleeping sickness control measures in Guinea","volume":"8","author":"A Pandey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010222.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0008096","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008096","article-title":"Quantifying geographic accessibility to improve efficiency of entomological monitoring","volume":"14","author":"J Longbottom","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010222","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,12]],"date-time":"2022-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657584000000}}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010222","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,12]],"date-time":"2022-07-12T13:39:42Z","timestamp":1657633182000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010222"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Adly M.M.","family":"Abd-Alla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,29]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,29]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010222","relation":{},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,29]]}}}