{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T14:41:25Z","timestamp":1768920085433,"version":"3.49.0"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010460","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]],"date-time":"2023-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674604800000}}],"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000066","name":"National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIH, D43TW010540"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIH, D43TW010540"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000066","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000066","name":"National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIH, R-01 AI102918"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIH, R-01 AI102918"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000066","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a zoonotic arbovirus that has profound impact on domestic ruminants and can also be transmitted to humans via infected animal secretions. Urban areas in endemic regions across Africa have susceptible animal and human hosts, dense vector distributions, and source livestock (often from high risk locations to meet the demand for animal protein). Yet, there has never been a documented urban outbreak of RVF. To understand the likely risk of RVFV introduction to urban communities from their perspective and guide future initiatives, we conducted focus group discussions with slaughterhouse workers, slaughterhouse animal product traders, and livestock owners in Kisumu City and Ukunda Town in Kenya. For added perspective and data triangulation, in-depth interviews were conducted one-on-one with meat inspector veterinarians from selected slaughterhouses. A theoretical framework relevant to introduction, transmission, and potential persistence of RVF in urban areas is presented here. Urban livestock were primarily mentioned as business opportunities, but also had personal sentiment. In addition to slaughtering risks, perceived risk factors included consumption of fresh milk. High risk groups\u2019 knowledge and experience with RVFV and other zoonotic diseases impacted their consideration of personal risk, with consensus towards lower risk in the urban setting compared to rural areas as determination of health risk was said to primarily rely on hygiene practices rather than the slaughtering process. Groups relied heavily on veterinarians to confirm animal health and meat safety, yet veterinarians reported difficulty in accessing RVFV diagnostics. We also identified vulnerable public health regulations including corruption in meat certification outside of the slaughterhouse system, and blood collected during slaughter being used for food and medicine, which could provide a means for direct RVFV community transmission. These factors, when compounded by diverse urban vector breeding habitats and dense human and animal populations, could create suitable conditions for RVFV to arrive an urban center via a viremic imported animal, transmit to locally owned animals and humans, and potentially adapt to secondary vectors and persist in the urban setting. This explorative qualitative study proposes risk pathways and provides initial insight towards determining how urban areas could adapt control measures and plan future initiatives to better understand urban RVF potential.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010460","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T18:58:36Z","timestamp":1673549916000},"page":"e0010460","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Exploring potential risk pathways with high risk groups for urban Rift Valley fever virus introduction, transmission, and persistence in two urban centers of Kenya"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9337-2409","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Keli Nicole","family":"Gerken","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Justinah","family":"Maluni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Francis Maluki","family":"Mutuku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bryson Alberto","family":"Ndenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luti","family":"Mwashee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Ichura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Karren","family":"Shaita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Makena","family":"Mwaniki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stella","family":"Orwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Krish","family":"Seetah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"A. Desiree","family":"LaBeaud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010460.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.14-0363","article-title":"Review article: Sociocultural and economic dimensions of Rift Valley Fever","volume":"92","author":"GO Muga","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010460.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003388","article-title":"Modelling the Effects of Seasonality and Socioeconomic Impact on the Transmission of Rift Valley Fever Virus.","volume":"9","author":"Y Xiao","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010460.ref003","first-page":"1","article-title":"High risk for human exposure to rift valley fever virus in communities living along livestock movement routes: A cross-sectional survey in Kenya.","volume":"14","author":"C Tigoi","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis [Internet]."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010460.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003548","article-title":"Factors Associated with Severe Human Rift Valley Fever in Sangailu, Garissa County, Kenya.","volume":"9","author":"AD LaBeaud","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0009852","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009852","article-title":"Paving the way for human vaccination against Rift Valley fever virus: A systematic literature review of RVFV epidemiology from 1999 to 2021.","volume":"16","author":"KN Gerken","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref006","first-page":"1","article-title":"Urban risk factors for human Rift Valley fever virus exposure in Kenya.","author":"KN Gerken","year":"2022"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010460.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)30588-6","article-title":"Responding to the threat of urban yellow fever outbreaks","volume":"17","author":"A Wilder-Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref008","first-page":"1","author":"IM de Rezende","year":"2018","journal-title":"Persistence of Yellow fever virus outside the Amazon Basin, causing epidemics in Southeast Brazil, from 2016 to 2018 Izabela Maur\u00edcio de Rezende 1\u262f, L\u00edvia Sacchetto 1\u262f, E \u00b4 rica Munhoz de Mello."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref009","unstructured":"WHO. Rift Valley fever Fact Sheet [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2021 Sep 16]. Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/rift-valley-fever"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010460.ref010","first-page":"2017","article-title":"Reemergence of yellow fever virus in southeastern Brazil, 2017\u20132018: What sparked the spread?","volume":"16","author":"JI Rosser","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis [Internet]."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref011","unstructured":"World Bank. Urban Development [Internet]. Understanding Poverty. 2020 [cited 2022 Mar 10]. Available from: https:\/\/www.worldbank.org\/en\/topic\/urbandevelopment\/overview#1"},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref012","first-page":"1","author":"World Bank Group","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stocktaking of the housing sector in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and opportunities"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010460.ref013","first-page":"1","article-title":"The role of livestock movements in the spread of rift valley fever virus in animals and humans in Mayotte, 2018\u201319.","volume":"15","author":"Y Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010460.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2915.2002.00371.x","article-title":"The 2000 epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia: Mosquito vector studies","volume":"16","author":"PG Jupp","year":"2002","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010460.ref015","first-page":"1","article-title":"Urbanization creates diverse aquatic habitats for immature mosquitoes in urban areas.","volume":"9","author":"ABB Wilke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2017.00171","article-title":"Urban livestock keeping in the city of Nairobi: Diversity of production systems, supply chains, and their disease management and risks.","volume":"4","author":"P Alarcon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010460.ref017","article-title":"Risk factors for infectious diseases in urban environments of sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and critical appraisal of evidence","volume":"4","author":"MR Boyce","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trop Med Infect Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref018","first-page":"1","author":"M. Mubila","year":"2012","journal-title":"Africa\u2019s demographic trends"},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref019","unstructured":"Prospects 2014 revision of the World Urbanization. 2014 revision of the World Urbanization Prospects. New York; 2014."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010460.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/jue\/juaa012","article-title":"Cities and pandemics: Urban areas are ground zero for the transmission of emerging human infectious diseases.","volume":"6","author":"D Santiago-Alarcon","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Urban Ecol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010460.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/45.1.102","article-title":"Vector Competence of Selected African Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) Species for Rift Valley Fever Virus.","volume":"45","author":"MJ Turell","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010460.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005341","article-title":"Distribution and abundance of key vectors of Rift Valley fever and other arboviruses in two ecologically distinct counties in Kenya.","volume":"11","author":"R Sang","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0010460.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003163","article-title":"Predicting the Mosquito Species and Vertebrate Species Involved in the Theoretical Transmission of Rift Valley Fever Virus in the United States.","volume":"8","author":"AJ Golnar","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010460.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2013.81","article-title":"The risk of Rift Valley fever virus introduction and establishment in the United States and European Union","volume":"2","author":"AI Rolin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0010460.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0189971","article-title":"Characteristics of Aedes aegypti adult mosquitoes in rural and urban areas of western and coastal Kenya.","volume":"12","author":"BA Ndenga","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0010460.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1611.100721","article-title":"Isolation of ancestral sylvatic dengue virus type 1, Malaysia","volume":"16","author":"BT Teoh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"3 March","key":"pntd.0010460.ref027","first-page":"1","article-title":"Insecticide resistance status of indoor and outdoor resting malaria vectors in a highland and lowland site in Western Kenya.","volume":"16","author":"KO Owuor","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One [Internet]."},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0010460.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.242231","article-title":"The urban-adapted underground mosquito Culex pipiens form molestus maintains exogenously influenceable circadian rhythms","volume":"224","author":"NR Epstein","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Exp Biol"},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2020.105175","article-title":"Managing the COVID-19 pandemic in poor urban neighborhoods: The case of Accra and Johannesburg.","volume":"137","author":"K Durizzo","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Dev [Internet]."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2021.103203","article-title":"A framework for assessing the effects of shock events on livestock and environment in sub-Saharan Africa: The COVID-19 pandemic in Northern Kenya.","volume":"192","author":"MW Graham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric Syst [Internet]."},{"issue":"January","key":"pntd.0010460.ref031","first-page":"1","article-title":"Reconstruction of Rift Valley fever transmission dynamics in Madagascar: Estimation of force of infection from seroprevalence surveys using Bayesian modelling.","volume":"7","author":"MM Olive","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci Rep [Internet]."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref032","unstructured":"National Council for, Attorney-General. URBAN AREAS AND CITIES ACT. 2012;(13)."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref033","unstructured":"Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. No Title. The 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census \u201cCounting Our People for Sustainable development and devolution of services\u201d VOLUME IV Distribution of population by County and Sub County. Nairobi; 2019."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref034","unstructured":"ClimateData. CLIMATE KISUMU [Internet]. [cited 2022 Mar 31]. Available from: https:\/\/en.climate-data.org\/africa\/kenya\/kisumu\/kisumu-715071\/"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010460.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.20-0387","article-title":"Epidemiological investigation of a rift valley fever outbreak in humans and livestock in Kenya, 2018","volume":"103","author":"A Hassan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010460.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0144570","article-title":"Predictive factors and risk mapping for Rift Valley fever epidemics in Kenya.","volume":"11","author":"PM Munyua","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref037","unstructured":"Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census [Internet]. Vol. II, 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census. 2019. 251 p. Available from: http:\/\/www.knbs.or.ke"},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref038","unstructured":"ClimateData. Climate Ukunda [Internet]. Available from: https:\/\/en.climate-data.org\/africa\/kenya\/kwale\/ukunda-103112\/"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010460.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268810001020","article-title":"Rift Valley fever in Kenya: History of epizootics and identification of vulnerable districts","volume":"139","author":"RM Murithi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref040","first-page":"1","article-title":"Recent trends for diagnosis of rift valley fever in animals and mosquitoes in Egypt with special reference to the carrier","volume":"2","author":"HM Youssef","year":"2008","journal-title":"Global Veterinaria."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref041","volume-title":"Recognizing Rift Valley Fever.","author":"F. Glyn Davies","year":"2003"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010460.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02341-13","article-title":"Aerosolized Rift Valley Fever Virus Causes Fatal Encephalitis in African Green Monkeys and Common Marmosets","volume":"88","author":"AL Hartman","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010460.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/2049-632X.12157","article-title":"Differences in aerosolization of Rift Valley fever virus resulting from choice of inhalation exposure chamber: Implications for animal challenge studies.","volume":"71","author":"DS Reed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pathog Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010460.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12941-020-0346-5","article-title":"The challenging management of Rift Valley Fever in humans: Literature review of the clinical disease and algorithm proposal","volume":"19","author":"E Javelle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob"},{"issue":"2 SUPPL.","key":"pntd.0010460.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.09-0293","article-title":"Risk factors for severe rift valley fever infection in Kenya, 2007","volume":"83","author":"AS Anyangu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010460.ref046","first-page":"1","article-title":"Lay perceptions of risk factors for Rift Valley fever in a pastoral community in northeastern Kenya.","volume":"16","author":"CM Ng\u2019ang\u2019a","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Public Health [Internet]."},{"key":"pntd.0010460.ref047","author":"M. Entomology","year":"2016","journal-title":"Guidelines for preventing mosquito breeding associated with wastewater treatment and disposal in the Northern Territory"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010460.ref048","first-page":"1","article-title":"Working conditions and public health risks in slaughterhouses in western Kenya.","volume":"17","author":"EAJ Cook","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Public Health [Internet]."},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010460.ref049","first-page":"1","article-title":"Source reduction with a purpose: Mosquito ecology and community perspectives offer insights for improving household mosquito management in coastal Kenya.","volume":"14","author":"JE Forsyth","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis [Internet]."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010460","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]],"date-time":"2023-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674604800000}}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010460","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,25]],"date-time":"2023-01-25T18:42:40Z","timestamp":1674672160000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010460"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Brianna R.","family":"Beechler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010460","relation":{"new_version":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010460","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]}}}