{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T14:48:11Z","timestamp":1783003691475,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,8]],"date-time":"2022-08-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659916800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000774","name":"Defense Threat Reduction Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HDTRA1-19-1-0031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HDTRA1-19-1-0031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000774","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n<jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Co-infection, especially with pathogens of dissimilar genetic makeup, may result in a more devastating impact on the host. Investigations on co-infection with neglected zoonotic pathogens in wildlife are necessary to inform appropriate prevention and control strategies to reduce disease burden in wildlife and the potential transmission of these pathogens between wildlife, livestock and humans. This study assessed co-exposure of various Kenyan wildflife species with <jats:italic>Brucella spp<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Coxiella burnetii<\/jats:italic> and Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV).<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n<jats:title>Methodology<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>A total of 363 sera from 16 different wildlife species, most of them (92.6%) herbivores, were analysed by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for IgG antibodies against <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic> spp, <jats:italic>C<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>burnetii<\/jats:italic> and RVFV. Further, 280 of these were tested by PCR to identify <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic> species.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n<jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Of the 16 wildlife species tested, 15 (93.8%) were seropositive for at least one of the pathogens. Mean seropositivities were 18.9% (95% CI: 15.0\u201323.3) for RVFV, 13.7% (95% CI: 10.3\u201317.7) for <jats:italic>Brucella spp<\/jats:italic> and 9.1% (95% CI: 6.3\u201312.5) for <jats:italic>C<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>burnetii<\/jats:italic>. Buffaloes (n = 269) had higher seropositivity for <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic> spp. (17.1%, 95% CI: 13.0\u201321.7%) and RVFV (23.4%, 95% CI: 18.6\u201328.6%), while giraffes (n = 36) had the highest seropositivity for <jats:italic>C<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>burnetii<\/jats:italic> (44.4%, 95% CI: 27.9\u201361.9%). Importantly, 23 of the 93 (24.7%) animals positive for at least one pathogen were co-exposed, with 25.4% (18\/71) of the positive buffaloes positive for brucellosis and RVFV. On molecular analysis, <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic> DNA was detected in 46 (19.5%, CI: 14.9\u201324.7) samples, with 4 (8.6%, 95% CI: 2.2\u201315.8) being identified as <jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>melitensis<\/jats:italic>. The Fisher\u2019s Exact test indicated that seropositivity varied significantly within the different animal families, with <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic> (p = 0.013), <jats:italic>C<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>burnetii<\/jats:italic> (p = &lt;0.001) and RVFV (p = 0.007). Location was also significantly associated (p = &lt;0.001) with <jats:italic>Brucella spp<\/jats:italic>. and C. <jats:italic>burnetii<\/jats:italic> seropositivities.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec004\">\n<jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Of ~20% of Kenyan wildlife that are seropositive for <jats:italic>Brucella<\/jats:italic> spp, <jats:italic>C<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>burnetii<\/jats:italic> and RVFV, almost 25% indicate co-infections with the three pathogens, particularly with <jats:italic>Brucella spp<\/jats:italic> and RVFV.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010596","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,8]],"date-time":"2022-08-08T17:33:50Z","timestamp":1659980030000},"page":"e0010596","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Evidence of co-exposure with Brucella spp, Coxiella burnetii, and Rift Valley fever virus among various species of wildlife in Kenya"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Francis","family":"Gakuya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5730-4505","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"James","family":"Akoko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lillian","family":"Wambua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Nyamota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bernard","family":"Ronoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isaac","family":"Lekolool","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Athman","family":"Mwatondo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mathew","family":"Muturi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Collins","family":"Ouma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Nthiwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Earl","family":"Middlebrook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeanne","family":"Fair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Gachohi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kariuki","family":"Njenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bernard","family":"Bett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,8]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0010596.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8091405","article-title":"Zoonotic Diseases: Etiology, Impact, and Control.","volume":"8","author":"T Rahman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"pntd.0010596.ref002","author":"FAO, OIE and WHO","year":"2019","journal-title":"Taking a Multisectoral, One Health Approach: A Tripartite Guide to Addressing Zoonotic Diseases in Countries."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010596.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2010.03441.x","article-title":"The global burden of bacterial and viral zoonotic infections","volume":"17","author":"L. 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