{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T01:45:16Z","timestamp":1780537516385,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,12]],"date-time":"2022-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670803200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000061","name":"Fogarty International Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["D43TW010568"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D43TW010568"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000061","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000061","name":"Fogarty International Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["D43TW010568"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D43TW010568"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000061","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000061","name":"Fogarty International Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["D43TW010568"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D43TW010568"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000061","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000061","name":"Fogarty International Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["D43TW010568"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D43TW010568"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000061","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000061","name":"Fogarty International Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["D43TW010568"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D43TW010568"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000061","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000061","name":"Fogarty International Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R25TW011216"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25TW011216"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000061","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000061","name":"Fogarty International Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R25TW011216"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25TW011216"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000061","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\"><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Leptospirosis is an occupational, neglected febrile disease of bacterial origin transmitted between humans and animals. In this manuscript we summarize available data on<jats:italic>Leptospira<\/jats:italic>infection in HIV uninfected and in people living with HIV from the Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, identifying gaps in knowledge and recommend future research priorities.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec002\"><jats:title>Methodology<\/jats:title><jats:p>Articles published between 1990 and 2021 were accessed by an online search of Google Scholar and Medline\/PubMed performed between February 2020 and July 2022. The STATA program was used for the Meta-analysis. Pooled prevalence values with 95% confidence intervals and heterogeneity were determined.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec003\"><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Thirty studies from eight SADC countries, reporting the prevalence on<jats:italic>Leptospira<\/jats:italic>were reviewed. A pooled prevalence of 19% (CI: 13\u201325%), a heterogeneity level of 96% and index score ranging from 2 to 9 was determined. Only four (4) studies reported HIV co-infection status. Three species of<jats:italic>Leptospira<\/jats:italic>(<jats:italic>Leptospira interrogans<\/jats:italic>(4),<jats:italic>L<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>kirschneri<\/jats:italic>(3),<jats:italic>Leptospira borgpetersenii<\/jats:italic>(1) and 23 serogroups were identified. The most frequently reported serogroups were Icterohaemorrhagiae (13), Grippotyphosa and Australis (10) followed by Sejroe (8).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec004\"><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Studies on human leptospirosis in the SADC region are scarce, especially in people living with HIV. Additional studies aimed at determining the prevalence and the role of the pathogen in people living with HIV, including detailed clinical, molecular and demographic data are recommended.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010823","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,12]],"date-time":"2022-12-12T18:34:00Z","timestamp":1670870040000},"page":"e0010823","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["A systematic review and meta-analysis of the epidemiology of Leptospirosis in HIV uninfected and in people living with HIV from the Southern African Development Community"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Isac Rodrigues","family":"Comia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0814-4231","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Regina Daniel","family":"Miambo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Em\u00edlia Virg\u00ednia","family":"Noormahomed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manuel","family":"Mahoche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alberto","family":"Pondja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert Turner","family":"Schooley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Constance","family":"Benson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jahit","family":"Sacarlal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,12]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010823.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182017001147","article-title":"Advances and challenges in barcoding pathogenic and environmental Leptospira","volume":"145","author":"V Guernier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0010823.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003898","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003898","article-title":"Global morbidity and mortality of leptospirosis: a systematic review.","volume":"9","author":"F Costa","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref003","author":"World Health O.","year":"2011","journal-title":"Report of the second meeting of the leptospirosis burden epidemiology reference group"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010823.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cair.2004.08.001","article-title":"Leptospirosis: a forgotten zoonosis?","volume":"4","author":"PN Levett","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. and Appl. Immunol. Rev"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0010823.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003899","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003899","article-title":"Epidemiology of leptospirosis in Africa: a systematic review of a neglected zoonosis and a paradigm for \u2018One Health\u2019in Africa.","volume":"9","author":"KJ Allan","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0010823.ref006","first-page":"813","article-title":"Molecular detection of Leptospira spp. in rodents trapped in the Mozambique Island City, Nampula Province, Mozambique.","volume":"14","author":"I Comia","year":"2018","journal-title":"EC Microbiology"},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2019.09.011","article-title":"Genital bovine leptospirosis: A new look for an old disease","volume":"141","author":"AP Loureiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010823.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2011.03474.x","article-title":"Emergence, control and re-emerging leptospirosis: dynamics of infection in the changing world","volume":"17","author":"RA Hartskeerl","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol.Infect"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0010823.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2208","article-title":"Leptospira: the dawn of the molecular genetics era for an emerging zoonotic pathogen","volume":"7","author":"AI Ko","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010823.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007270","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007270","article-title":"Revisiting the taxonomy and evolution of pathogenicity of the genus Leptospira through the prism of genomics","volume":"13","author":"AT Vincent","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmal.2012.11.005","article-title":"Diagnosis and epidemiology of leptospirosis.","volume":"43","author":"M Picardeau","year":"2013","journal-title":"MEd. mal. Infect."},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-45059-8_11","article-title":"The role of leptospirosis reference laboratories.","author":"RA Hartskeerl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Leptospira and Leptospirosis."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.09.010302","article-title":"Leptospirosis under the bibliometrics radar: evidence for a vicious circle of neglect.","volume":"9","author":"C Goarant","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Glob. Health"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"pntd.0010823.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2009.03.012","article-title":"de la Pe\u00f1a Moctezuma A. Leptospira and leptospirosis","volume":"140","author":"B Adler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010823.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12052","article-title":"Leptospira interrogans at the human\u2013wildlife interface in northern Botswana: a newly identified public health threat.","volume":"61","author":"SE Jobbins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-018-1657-9","article-title":"High frequency of genital carriers of Leptospira spp. in sheep slaughtered in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil.","volume":"51","author":"AF Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010823.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0006372","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006372","article-title":"Risk factors for human acute leptospirosis in northern Tanzania.","volume":"12","author":"MJ Maze","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010823.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0006444","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006444","article-title":"Assessment of animal hosts of pathogenic Leptospira in northern Tanzania.","volume":"12","author":"KJ Allan","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.."},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref019","volume-title":"Leptospirosis in northern Tanzania: exploring the role of rodents and ruminant livestock in a neglected public health problem","author":"KJ Allan","year":"2016"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010823.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.4103\/1755-6783.116511","article-title":"Mild self resolving acute leptospirosis in an HIV infected patient in south India","volume":"6","author":"A. Pai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref021","first-page":"39","article-title":"Laboratory methods for diagnosing leptospirosis: a review.","volume":"3","author":"SA Safiulah","year":"2009","journal-title":"B. Med. Microbiol.."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.73.67","article-title":"Mild, self-resolving acute leptospirosis in an HIV-infected patient in the Peruvian Amazon","volume":"73","author":"CA Ganoza","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010823.ref023","first-page":"179","article-title":"Unusual clinical manifestations of leptospirosis.","volume":"51","author":"AM Bal","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Postgrad. Med."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e46","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(13)70008-1","article-title":"Causes of non-malarial fever in Laos: a prospective study.","volume":"1","author":"M Mayxay","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lance Glob. Health."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010823.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens8020050","article-title":"Systematic review of important bacterial zoonoses in Africa in the last decade in light of the \u2018One Health\u2019concept.","volume":"8","author":"J Asante","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0010823.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2012.1205","article-title":"Leptospirosis and human immunodeficiency virus co-infection among febrile inpatients in northern Tanzania.","volume":"13","author":"HM Biggs","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0010823.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/jia2.25850","article-title":"It is a question of equity: time to talk about children who are HIV-exposed and \u201cHIV-free\u201d.","volume":"24","author":"AL Slogrove","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Int. AIDS Soc"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref028","first-page":"1","article-title":"Burden and changes in HIV\/AIDS morbidity and mortality in Southern Africa Development Community Countries, 1990\u20132017.","volume":"20","author":"PN Gona","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-016-3647-z","article-title":"The prevalence of malaria in people living with HIV in Yaounde, Cameroon.","volume":"16","author":"AL Njunda","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref030","first-page":"123","article-title":"Malaria and HIV coinfection in sub-Saharan Africa: prevalence, impact, and treatment strategies","volume":"9","author":"TE Kwenti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Rep. Trop. Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010823.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003750","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003750","article-title":"Prevalence of bacterial febrile illnesses in children in Kilosa district, Tanzania.","volume":"9","author":"B Chipwaza","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.."},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0010823.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2324","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002324","article-title":"Etiology of severe non-malaria febrile illness in Northern Tanzania: a prospective cohort study.","volume":"7","author":"JA Crump","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis.."},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010823.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135","article-title":"PRISMA Group*. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement","volume":"151","author":"D Moher","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med"},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref034","volume-title":"Child trafficking in SADC countries: the need for a regional response","author":"J. Gallinetti","year":"2008"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010823.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.11-0176","article-title":"Leptospirosis among hospitalized febrile patients in northern Tanzania","volume":"85","author":"HM Biggs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0010823.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005831","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005831","article-title":"Human leptospirosis in Seychelles: A prospective study confirms the heavy burden of the disease but suggests that rats are not the main reservoir.","volume":"11","author":"L Biscornet","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0010823.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005165","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005165","article-title":"Comparison of the estimated incidence of acute leptospirosis in the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania between 2007\u201308 and 2012\u201314.","volume":"10","author":"MJ Maze","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0010823.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2589","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002589","article-title":"Estimating leptospirosis incidence using hospital-based surveillance and a population-based health care utilization survey in Tanzania.","volume":"7","author":"HM Biggs","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref039","author":"LM Kmet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Standard quality assessment criteria for evaluating primary research papers from a variety of fields"},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref040","author":"JV Garcia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Contribui\u00e7\u00e3o para o conhecimento da Leptospirose Humana na Regi\u00e3o do Lobito (Angola) (Doctoral dissertation, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical)."},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref041","author":"EM Gabriel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Leptospirose em Angola: estudo sero-epidemiol\u00f3gico em pacientes febris com suspeita de mal\u00e1ria e identifica\u00e7\u00e3o de Leptospira spp em reservat\u00f3rios silv\u00e1ticos"},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2017.08.018","article-title":"Seroepidemiology of leptospirosis among febrile patients in a rapidly growing suburban slum and a flood-vulnerable rural district in Mozambique, 2012\u20132014: implications for the management of fever.","volume":"64","author":"P Ribeiro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0010823.ref043","first-page":"234","article-title":"Preliminary survey of Leptospirosis and Lyme disease amongst febrile patients attending community hospital ambulatory care in Maputo, Mozambique.","volume":"43","author":"M Collares-Pereira","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cent. Afr. J. Med."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010823.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1824","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph110201824","article-title":"Discovery of a leptospirosis cluster amidst a pneumonic plague outbreak in a miners\u2019 camp in the Democratic Republic of the Congo","volume":"11","author":"E Bertherat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0010823.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0009670","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009670","article-title":"Leptospirosis as a cause of fever associated with jaundice in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.","volume":"15","author":"P Mukadi Kakoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010823.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/28.3.583","article-title":"Factors associated with clinical leptospirosis: a population-based case-control study in the Seychelles (Indian Ocean).","volume":"28","author":"P Bovet","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010823.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.1992.tb139700.x","article-title":"Leptospirosis in the Seychelles.","volume":"156","author":"TG Pinn","year":"1992","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-4877.2008.00072.x","article-title":"Understanding and managing sanitary risks due to rodent zoonoses in an African city: beyond the Boston Model.","volume":"3","author":"PJ Taylor","year":"2008","journal-title":"Integr. Zool."},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref049","author":"AN Saif","year":"2013","journal-title":"The Detection of Burkholderia spp. and pathogenic Leptospira spp. in South Africa"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010823.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2017.2158","article-title":"Prevalence of selected zoonotic diseases and risk factors at a human-wildlife-livestock interface in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa.","volume":"18","author":"GJ Simpson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010823.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003607","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003607","article-title":"Predominant leptospiral serogroups circulating among humans, livestock and wildlife in Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem, Tanzania.","volume":"9","author":"JA Assenga","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1588-x","article-title":"Human leptospirosis in Tanzania: sequencing and phylogenetic analysis confirm that pathogenic Leptospira species circulate among agro-pastoralists living in Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem.","volume":"16","author":"SK Muller","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref053","article-title":"Leptospirosis in animals and humans in selected areas of Tanzania","author":"R Machang\u2019u","year":"1997","journal-title":"Belg. J. Zool. (Belgium)."},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010823.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007225","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007225","article-title":"Leptospirosis in sugarcane plantation and fishing communities in Kagera northwestern Tanzania.","volume":"13","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010823.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0006600","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006600","article-title":"Seropositivity of Brucella spp. and Leptospira spp. antibodies among abattoir workers and meat vendors in the city of Mwanza, Tanzania: A call for one health approach control strategies.","volume":"12","author":"MM Mirambo","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0010823.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1179\/000349809X12554106963393","article-title":"Risk factors associated with the seroprevalence of leptospirosis, amongst at-risk groups in and around Tanga city, Tanzania","volume":"103","author":"L Schoonman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref057","first-page":"199","article-title":"Prevalence of Plasmodium, Leptospira and Rickettsia species in Northern Tanzania: a community based survey.","volume":"20","author":"JO Chilongola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Sci."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010823.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10060696","article-title":"Leptospira Seropositivity in Humans, Livestock and Wild Animals in a Semi-Arid Area of Tanzania.","volume":"10","author":"GF Mgode","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010823.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.19-0703","article-title":"Molecular detection and typing of pathogenic Leptospira in febrile patients and phylogenetic comparison with Leptospira detected among animals in Tanzania","volume":"103","author":"KJ Allan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hygiene"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref060","article-title":"Epidemiology of Human Leptospirosis in HIV Patients Attending Anti-Retro Viral Treatment in Public Hospitals and Clinics in Kabwe Urban.","volume":"7","author":"G Nombwende","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref061","first-page":"105","article-title":"Domestic rodents as reservoirs of pathogenic Leptospira on two city of Harare farms: Preliminary results of bacteriological and serological studies","volume":"127","author":"JM Dalu","year":"1997","journal-title":"Belg. J. Zool"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0010823.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2018.02.011","article-title":"The epidemiology of febrile illness in sub-Saharan Africa: implications for diagnosis and management.","volume":"24","author":"MJ Maze","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infecti."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-5288(95)90038-1","article-title":"Identification of leptospires of the Pomona and Grippotyphosa serogroups isolated from cattle in Zimbabwe","volume":"59","author":"SB Feresu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref064","first-page":"207","article-title":"A new leptospiral serovar, ngavi, in the Tarassovi serogroup isolated from Zimbabwe oxen","volume":"48","author":"SB Feresu","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol"},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref065","article-title":"Leptospirosis in nigerian: a seroepidemiological survey","author":"CA Agunloye","year":"2001","journal-title":"Indian Vet. J. (India)."},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010823.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.186","article-title":"Leptospirosis, one neglected disease in rural Senegal","volume":"5","author":"C Roqueplo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Science"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010823.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1999.60.610","article-title":"Leptospirosis and Ebola virus infection in five gold-panning villages in northeastern Gabon","volume":"60","author":"E Bertherat","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010823.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1136\/oemed-2016-103895","article-title":"Risk factors for leptospirosis seropositivity in slaughterhouse workers in western Kenya.","volume":"74","author":"EA Cook","year":"2017","journal-title":"Occup. Environ. Med."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4314\/ejhd.v18i1.9866","article-title":"Human leptospirosis, in Ethiopia: a pilot study in Wonji.","volume":"18","author":"E Yimer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ethiop. J. Health Dev"},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref070","author":"MA Besong","journal-title":"Sero-prevalence of leptospirosis among presumptive malaria patients in a secondary health facility in Oyo state, Southwest Nigeria"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0010823.ref071","article-title":"Fostering Sustainable Biomedical Research Training in Mozambique: A Spin-Off of the Medical Education Partnership Initiative.","volume":"88","author":"EV Noormahomed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Glob. Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0010823.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1999.61.731","article-title":"Assessment of the efficacy of an IgM-elisa and microscopic agglutination test (MAT) in the diagnosis of acute leptospirosis.","volume":"61","author":"P Cumberland","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0010823.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2013.03.001","article-title":"Laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis: a challenge","volume":"46","author":"D Musso","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0010823.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2005.07.015","article-title":"Evaluation of MAT, IgM ELISA and PCR methods for the diagnosis of human leptospirosis","volume":"65","author":"MC Ooteman","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Microbiol Methods"},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2017.03.022","article-title":"Malaria overdiagnosis and subsequent overconsumption of antimalarial drugs in Angola: Consequences and effects on human health","volume":"171","author":"S Manguin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010823.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1179\/2047773213Y.0000000112","article-title":"Leptospirosis and malaria as causes of febrile illness during a dengue epidemic in Jamaica.","volume":"107","author":"J Lindo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pathog. Glob. Health."},{"issue":"7476","key":"pntd.0010823.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.38251.658229.55","article-title":"Overdiagnosis of malaria in patients with severe febrile illness in Tanzania: a prospective study","volume":"329","author":"H Reyburn","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bmj"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0010823.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1258\/004947507781524845","article-title":"Overdiagnosis of malaria in hospitalized patients in Namibia.","volume":"37","author":"J Van Dillen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trop. Doct.."},{"issue":"20","key":"pntd.0010823.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.130.20.446","article-title":"Isolation of Leptospira interrogans from kidneys of Zimbabwe beef cattle","volume":"130","author":"SB Feresu","year":"1992","journal-title":"Vet. Rec"},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref080","author":"AD Potts","year":"1995","journal-title":"Serological prevalence of leptospiral antibodies in pigs in South Africa"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0010823.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3789","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-020-02417-0","article-title":"Seroepidemiology of Leptospira infection in slaughtered cattle in Gauteng province, South Africa.","volume":"52","author":"BB Dogonyaro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"pntd.0010823.ref082","first-page":"47","article-title":"Leptospirosis in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Int","volume":"28","author":"SG De Vries","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0010823.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0004039","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004039","article-title":"Leptospirosis: updating the global picture of an emerging neglected disease.","volume":"9","author":"M. Picardeau","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. trop. Dis."},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0010823.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0010606","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010606","article-title":"The burden of T. solium cysticercosis and selected neuropsychiatric disorders in Mocuba district, Zamb\u00e9zia province, Mozambique.","volume":"16","author":"I Langa","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLOS Negl. Trop. Dis."}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010823","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]],"date-time":"2023-03-17T11:51:52Z","timestamp":1679053912000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010823"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Tauqeer Hussain","family":"Mallhi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,12]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,12]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010823","relation":{},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,12]]}}}