{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T02:51:24Z","timestamp":1787626284421,"version":"build-2736575974"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011011","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,30]],"date-time":"2022-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672358400000}}],"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,16]],"date-time":"2022-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1671148800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Finance code 001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Finance code 001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005668","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Apoio \u00e0 Pesquisa do Distrito Federal","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["193.000.233\/2014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["193.000.233\/2014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005668","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005668","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Apoio \u00e0 Pesquisa do Distrito Federal","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["193.000.867\/2015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["193.000.867\/2015"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005668","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n<jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Domestic dogs are primary reservoir hosts of <jats:italic>Leishmania infantum<\/jats:italic>, the agent of visceral leishmaniasis. Detecting dog infections is central to epidemiological inference, disease prevention, and veterinary practice. Error-free diagnostic procedures, however, are lacking, and the performance of those available is difficult to measure in the absence of fail-safe \u201creference standards\u201d. Here, we illustrate how a hierarchical-modeling approach can be used to formally account for false-negative and false-positive results when investigating the process of <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic> detection in dogs.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n<jats:title>Methods\/Findings<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>We studied 294 field-sampled dogs of unknown infection status from a <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>-endemic region. We ran 350 parasitological tests (bone-marrow microscopy and culture) and 1,016 qPCR assays (blood, bone-marrow, and eye-swab samples with amplifiable DNA). Using replicate test results and site-occupancy models, we estimated (a) clinical sensitivity for each diagnostic procedure and (b) clinical specificity for qPCRs; parasitological tests were assumed 100% specific. Initial modeling revealed qPCR specificity &lt; 94%; we tracked the source of this unexpected result to some qPCR plates having subtle signs of possible contamination. Using multi-model inference, we formally accounted for suspected plate contamination and estimated qPCR sensitivity at 49\u201353% across sample types and dog clinical conditions; qPCR specificity was high (95\u201396%), but fell to 81\u201382% for assays run in plates with suspected contamination. The sensitivity of parasitological procedures was low (~12\u201313%), but increased to ~33% (with substantial uncertainty) for bone-marrow culture in seriously-diseased dogs. <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>-infection frequency estimates (~49\u201350% across clinical conditions) were lower than observed (~60%).<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n<jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>We provide statistical estimates of key performance parameters for five diagnostic procedures used to detect <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic> in dogs. Low clinical sensitivies likely reflect the absence of <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic> parasites\/DNA in perhaps ~50\u201370% of samples drawn from infected dogs. Although qPCR performance was similar across sample types, non-invasive eye-swabs were overall less likely to contain amplifiable DNA. Finally, modeling was instrumental to discovering (and formally accounting for) possible qPCR-plate contamination; even with stringent negative\/blank-control scoring, ~4\u20135% of positive qPCRs were most likely false-positives. This work shows, in sum, how hierarchical site-occupancy models can sharpen our understanding of the problem of diagnosing host infections with hard-to-detect pathogens including <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,16]],"date-time":"2022-12-16T18:32:45Z","timestamp":1671215565000},"page":"e0011011","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Detecting Leishmania in dogs: A hierarchical-modeling approach to investigate the performance of parasitological and qPCR-based diagnostic procedures"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Tamires","family":"Vital","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana Izabel Passarella","family":"Teixeira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"D\u00e9bora Marcolino","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruna Caroline","family":"de Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruno","family":"Dallago","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luciana","family":"Hagstr\u00f6m","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariana Machado","family":"Hecht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nadjar","family":"Nitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7715-0328","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Fernando","family":"Abad-Franch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"pntd.0011011.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31204-2","article-title":"Leishmaniasis","volume":"392","author":"S Burza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"pntd.0011011.ref002","volume-title":"Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 (GBD 2019) Results","author":"Global Burden of Disease Collaborative 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