{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T21:49:14Z","timestamp":1789163354251,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]],"date-time":"2023-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691625600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Researchers have raised the possibility that soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections might modify the host\u2019s immune response against other systemic infections. STH infections can alter the immune response towards type 2 immunity that could then affect the likelihood and severity of other illnesses. However, the importance of co-infections is not completely understood, and the impact and direction of their effects vary considerably by infection. This review synthesizes evidence regarding the relevance of STH co-infections, the potential mechanisms that explain their effects, and how they might affect control and elimination efforts. According to the literature reviewed, there are both positive and negative effects associated with STH infections on other diseases such as malaria, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), tuberculosis, gestational anemia, pediatric anemia, neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) like lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, and trachoma, as well as Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and human papillomavirus (HPV). Studies typically describe how STHs can affect the immune system and promote increased susceptibility, survival, and persistence of the infection in the host by causing a TH2-dominated immune response. The co-infection of STH with other diseases has important implications for the development of treatment and control strategies. Eliminating parasites from a human host can be more challenging because the TH2-dominated immune response induced by STH infection can suppress the TH1 immune response required to control other infections, resulting in an increased pathogen load and more severe disease. Preventive chemotherapy and treatment are currently the most common approaches used for the control of STH infections, but these approaches alone may not be adequate to achieve elimination goals. Based on the conclusions drawn from this review, integrated approaches that combine drug administration with water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) interventions, hygiene education, community engagement, and vaccines are most likely to succeed in interrupting the transmission of STH co-infections. Gaining a better understanding of the behavior and relevance of STH co-infections in the context of elimination efforts is an important intermediate step toward reducing the associated burden of disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011496","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]],"date-time":"2023-08-10T17:23:39Z","timestamp":1691688219000},"page":"e0011496","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Soil-transmitted helminths: A critical review of the impact of co-infections and implications for control and elimination"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Sarah","family":"Lebu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Winnie","family":"Kibone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chimdi C.","family":"Muoghalu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen","family":"Ochaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aaron","family":"Salzberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Felix","family":"Bongomin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3317-7318","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Musa","family":"Manga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref001","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2023","journal-title":"Soil-transmitted helminth infections"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.4103\/0974-777X.81696","article-title":"Prevention of Soil-transmitted Helminth Infection","volume":"3","author":"L. Mascarini-Serra","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Glob Infect."},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0011496.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0239557","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239557","article-title":"Prevalence of soil-transmitted helminthes and its association with water, sanitation, hygiene among schoolchildren and barriers for schools level prevention in technology villages of Hawassa University: Mixed design.","volume":"15","author":"WA Gitore","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0011496.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2910","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph9082910","article-title":"Intestinal Helminth Infections and Nutritional Status of Children Attending Primary Schools in Wakiso District, Central Uganda.","volume":"9","author":"L Francis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005523","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005523","article-title":"Soil-transmitted helminth infection, loss of education and cognitive impairment in school-aged children: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"12","author":"N Pabalan","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref006","first-page":"81","article-title":"Epidemiology and clinical features of soil-transmitted helminths.","volume":"7","author":"SC Parija","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trop Parasitol."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref007","article-title":"Prevalence and Risk Factors of Soil-Transmitted Helminthic Infections in the Pediatric Population in India: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.","author":"P Chopra","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Lab Physicians."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4603638","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/4603638","article-title":"Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections among Schoolchildren around Lake Tana, Northwest Ethiopia.","volume":"2022","author":"M Getaneh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Parasitol Res"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref009","article-title":"Behavioral factors affecting soil-transmitted helminthiasis among pregnant women attending antenatal care follow-up in Dembia, Ethiopia","author":"T Assefa","year":"2021","journal-title":"In Review"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0011496.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3161","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_1109_21","article-title":"The burden of soil-transmitted helminths infections among pregnant women in Maharashtra and Rajasthan states of India.","volume":"11","author":"A Gaidhane","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Family Med Prim Care."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11786337211055436","DOI":"10.1177\/11786337211055437","article-title":"Prevalence of Soil-Transmitted Helminthes and Associated Risk Factors Among People of Ethiopia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.","volume":"15","author":"A Aemiro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect Dis (Auckl)."},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0011496.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0274702","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0274702","article-title":"Prevalence and intensity of soil-transmitted helminth infections and associated risk factors among household heads living in the peri-urban areas of Jimma town, Oromia, Ethiopia: A community-based cross-sectional study.","volume":"17","author":"A Zeynudin","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4586","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-08333-7","article-title":"Prevalence, intensity and endemicity of intestinal schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis and its associated factors among school-aged children in Southern Ethiopia.","volume":"12","author":"Z Zerdo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3471-2","article-title":"Associations between Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis and Viral, Bacterial, and Protozoal Enteroinfections: A Cross-Sectional Study in Rural Laos.","author":"AN Chard","year":"2019"},{"issue":"S1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.1017\/S003118200001698X","article-title":"Concomitant infections, parasites and immune responses","volume":"122","author":"FEG Cox","year":"2001","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0011496.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1768","DOI":"10.1086\/379370","article-title":"Th2 cytokines are associated with reduced worm burdens in a human intestinal helminth infection","volume":"188","author":"JD Turner","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0011496.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2567.2011.03413.x","article-title":"Type 2 innate immune responses and the natural helper cell","volume":"132","author":"S Koyasu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1111-2","article-title":"Malaria, helminths, co-infection and anaemia in a cohort of children from Mutengene, south western Cameroon.","volume":"15","author":"C Njua-Yafi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0011496.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-022-00531-w","article-title":"Tissue-specific immunity in helminth infections","volume":"15","author":"F Vacca","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0011496.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1002003","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002003","article-title":"Evolution of Th2 Immunity: A Rapid Repair Response to Tissue Destructive Pathogens.","volume":"7","author":"JE Allen","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0011496.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000447","article-title":"When do co-infections matter?","volume":"31","author":"AJ McArdle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Opin Infect Dis."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0009138","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009138","article-title":"Malaria and helminth co-infections in children living in endemic countries: A systematic review with meta-analysis.","volume":"15","author":"MO Afolabi","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2006.75.194","article-title":"Parasitic co-infections: does Ascaris lumbricoides protect against Plasmodium falciparum infection?","volume":"75","author":"L Brutus","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-10-259","article-title":"Interactions between worms and malaria: Good worms or bad worms?","volume":"10","author":"M. Nacher","year":"2011","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-12-1","article-title":"Ascaris co-infection does not alter malaria-induced anaemia in a cohort of Nigerian preschool children.","volume":"12","author":"FA Abanyie","year":"2013","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0011496.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2010.02598.x","article-title":"Epidemiology of parasitic co-infections during pregnancy in Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9, Gabon.","volume":"15","author":"AA Adegnika","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2017.03.002","article-title":"High prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum and soil-transmitted helminth co-infections in a periurban community in Kwara State, Nigeria.","volume":"11","author":"OA Babamale","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Infect Public Health."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-5-99","article-title":"The co-distribution of Plasmodium falciparum and hookworm among African schoolchildren.","volume":"5","author":"S Brooker","year":"2006","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e86510","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0086510","article-title":"Malaria and Helminth Co-Infections in School and Preschool Children: A Cross-Sectional Study in Magu District, North-Western Tanzania.","volume":"9","author":"SM Kinung\u2019hi","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0011496.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e644","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000644","article-title":"Prevalence and Correlates of Helminth Co-infection in Kenyan HIV-1 Infected Adults.","volume":"4","author":"JL Walson","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9059523","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/9059523","article-title":"The Interaction between HIV and Intestinal Helminth Parasites Coinfection with Nutrition among Adults in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.","volume":"2017","author":"BT Mkhize","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed Res Int"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0011496.ref032","first-page":"CD006419","article-title":"Antihelminthics in helminth-endemic areas: effects on HIV disease progression.","volume":"4","author":"AR Means","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0011496.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e102","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000102","article-title":"Treatment of Helminth Co-Infection in Individuals with HIV-1: A Systematic Review of the Literature.","volume":"1","author":"JL Walson","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"13","key":"pntd.0011496.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e32830a502e","article-title":"Albendazole treatment of HIV-1 and helminth co-infection: A randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"22","author":"JL Walson","year":"2008","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1177\/00494755221080593","article-title":"Hookworm re-infection rate and efficacy of single-dose albendazole among pregnant women in Debre Elias District, Northwest Ethiopia: A single-arm trial.","volume":"52","author":"Y Aschale","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trop Doct."},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0011496.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3024.2006.00904.x","article-title":"Helminths and HIV infection: epidemiological observations on immunological hypotheses","volume":"28","author":"M BROWN","year":"2006","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol"},{"issue":"6449","key":"pntd.0011496.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1038\/365797a0","article-title":"Immunological modulation and evasion by helminth parasites in human populations","volume":"365","author":"RM Maizels","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0011496.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3024.2006.00918.x","article-title":"HIV and helminth co-infection: is deworming necessary?","volume":"28","author":"G Borkow","year":"2006","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol"},{"issue":"13","key":"pntd.0011496.ref039","first-page":"1731","article-title":"Increased susceptibility to HIV-1 infection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from chronically immune-activated individuals","volume":"12","author":"O Shapira-Nahor","year":"1998","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref040","author":"F. Gashaw","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immune Profiles of Patients Co-Infected with Soil-Transmitted Helminths and Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Implications for Control. In"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0011496.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42901","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0042901","article-title":"The Impact of Asymptomatic Helminth Co-Infection in Patients with Newly Diagnosed Tuberculosis in North-West Ethiopia.","volume":"7","author":"E Abate","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-020-05237-7","article-title":"Intestinal parasites co-infection among tuberculosis patients in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"20","author":"A Alemu","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0011496.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00973","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00973-16","article-title":"Anthelmintic Therapy Modifies the Systemic and Mycobacterial Antigen-Stimulated Cytokine Profile in Helminth-Latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis Coinfection","volume":"85","author":"R Anuradha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.12-0195","article-title":"Maternal Anemia in Pregnancy: Assessing the Effect of Routine Preventive Measures in a Malaria-Endemic Area","volume":"88","author":"S Ou\u00e9draogo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0011496.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0009260","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009260","article-title":"Soil-transmitted helminth infection in pregnancy and long-term child neurocognitive and behavioral development: A prospective mother-child cohort in Benin.","volume":"15","author":"A Garrison","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0011496.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2912","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002912","article-title":"Blood Drain: Soil-Transmitted Helminths and Anemia in Pregnant Women.","volume":"8","author":"TW Gyorkos","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0011496.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2011.02727.x","article-title":"Trichuris and hookworm infections associated with anaemia during pregnancy","volume":"16","author":"TW Gyorkos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref048","volume-title":"Guideline: Preventive Chemotherapy to Control Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections in At-Risk Population Groups","year":"2017"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s13690-015-0084-x","article-title":"Prevalence and factors associated with undernutrition and anaemia among school children in Durbete Town, northwest Ethiopia.","volume":"73","author":"T Alelign","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch Public Health."},{"issue":"F","key":"pntd.0011496.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.3889\/oamjms.2022.8974","article-title":"Hemoglobin Level and Risk of Anemia in Soil-Transmitted Helminths Infections among Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.","volume":"10","author":"ARM Alnaz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Access Maced J Med Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022149X12000855","article-title":"The association between multiple intestinal helminth infections and blood group, anaemia and nutritional status in human populations from Dore Bafeno, southern Ethiopia.","volume":"88","author":"A Degarege","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Helminthol."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0011496.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0009506","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009506","article-title":"Soil-transmitted helminth infection, anemia, and malnutrition among preschool-age children in Nangapanda subdistrict, Indonesia.","volume":"15","author":"Y Djuardi","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0011496.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10051027","article-title":"Soil-Transmitted Helminths and Anaemia: A Neglected Association Outside the Tropics.","volume":"10","author":"S Caldrer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microorganisms."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2016.88","article-title":"Hookworm infection.","volume":"2","author":"A Loukas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Primers."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0004386","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004386","article-title":"Concerted Efforts to Control or Eliminate Neglected Tropical Diseases: How Much Health Will Be Gained?","volume":"10","author":"SJ de Vlas","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0011496.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2015.53.5.515","article-title":"Prevalence of Schistosomes and Soil-Transmitted Helminths among Schoolchildren in Lake Victoria Basin, Tanzania.","volume":"53","author":"JE Siza","year":"2015","journal-title":"Korean J Parasitol"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0011496.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3014","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003014","article-title":"Distribution of Schistosomiasis and Soil Transmitted Helminthiasis in Zimbabwe: Towards a National Plan of Action for Control and Elimination.","volume":"8","author":"N Midzi","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref058","first-page":"e8810519","article-title":"Risk Factors Associated with Helminthic Intestinal Infection in Lurambi Subcounty, Kakamega, Kenya.","author":"RW Kiiti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Parasitol Res"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0011496.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e352","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000352","article-title":"Human Helminth Co-Infection: Analysis of Spatial Patterns and Risk Factors in a Brazilian Community.","volume":"2","author":"RL Pullan","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref060","article-title":"Modeling the Interruption of the Transmission of Soil-Transmitted Helminths Infections in Kenya: Modeling Deworming, Water, and Sanitation Impacts.","author":"C Okoyo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04600-0","article-title":"Soil-transmitted helminths and schistosome infections in Ethiopia: a systematic review of progress in their control over the past 20 years.","volume":"14","author":"R Maddren","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0263625","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0263625","article-title":"Impact of ivermectin mass drug administration on burden of soil-transmitted helminths in onchocerciasis control and elimination programs, Yeki district, southwest Ethiopia.","volume":"17","author":"G Gebrezgabiher","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-022-00973-1","article-title":"High infection rates for onchocerciasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis in children under five not receiving preventive chemotherapy: a bottleneck to elimination.","volume":"11","author":"HC Nana-Djeunga","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty."},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0011496.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007201","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007201","article-title":"Challenges and opportunities for control and elimination of soil-transmitted helminth infection beyond 2020.","volume":"13","author":"MC Freeman","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inhe.2012.03.002","article-title":"Household social determinants of ascariasis and trichuriasis in North Central Venezuela.","volume":"4","author":"K Quintero","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int Health."},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0011496.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2005.12.001","article-title":"Controlling lymphatic filariasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis together in South Asia: opportunities and challenges","volume":"100","author":"E Padmasiri","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0011496.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0008322","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008322","article-title":"The impact of four years of semiannual treatments with albendazole alone on lymphatic filariasis and soil-transmitted helminth infections: A community-based study in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.","volume":"14","author":"SDS Pion","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0011496.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00260-7","article-title":"An urgent need: vaccines for neglected tropical diseases","volume":"21","author":"RM Anderson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0011496.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0007349","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007349","article-title":"Modelling the impact of a Schistosoma mansoni vaccine and mass drug administration to achieve morbidity control and transmission elimination","volume":"13","author":"K Kura","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4421","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S335447","article-title":"The Influence of Helminth Immune Regulation on COVID-19 Clinical Outcomes: Is it Beneficial or Detrimental?","volume":"14","author":"M Ademe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect Drug Resist."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref071","article-title":"Effect of co-infection with parasites on severity of COVID-19","author":"T Gebrecherkos","year":"2021","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0011496.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1021\/acsptsci.0c00141","article-title":"Helminths and COVID-19 Co-Infections: A Neglected Critical Challenge","volume":"3","author":"A. Abdoli","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0011496.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0008628","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008628","article-title":"Helminth coinfection and COVID-19: An alternate hypothesis.","volume":"14","author":"R Hays","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"156","key":"pntd.0011496.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106695","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 and helminth co-infections, and environmental pollution exposure: An epidemiological and immunological perspective","volume":"1","author":"P Naidoo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0011496.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2022.01.007","article-title":"Helminths and COVID-19 susceptibility, disease progression, and vaccination efficacy","volume":"38","author":"B Whitehead","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0011496.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0330-5","article-title":"Will helminth co-infection modulate COVID-19 severity in endemic regions?","volume":"20","author":"RS Bradbury","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01116-8","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccine trials must include helminth-infected cohorts","volume":"23","author":"TG Egwang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0011496.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv498","article-title":"Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections Are Associated With an Increase in Human Papillomavirus Prevalence and a T-Helper Type 2 Cytokine Signature in Cervical Fluids","volume":"213","author":"PE Gravitt","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref079","article-title":"Impact of Helminth Infections on Female Reproductive Health and Associated Diseases.","author":"A Chetty","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11547","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-30058-9","article-title":"Hookworm exposure decreases human papillomavirus uptake and cervical cancer cell migration through systemic regulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition marker expression","volume":"8","author":"BA Jacobs","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref081","article-title":"Hookworm infection associates with a vaginal Type 1\/Type 2 immune signature and increased HPV load.","author":"MA Omondi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers in Immunology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1093\/emph\/eoab035","article-title":"Helminth infection is associated with dampened cytokine responses to viral and bacterial stimulations in Tsimane forager-horticulturalists","volume":"9","author":"IA Schneider-Crease","year":"2021","journal-title":"Evol Med Public Health"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref083","article-title":"Immunity to Soil-Transmitted Helminths: Evidence From the Field and Laboratory Models.","author":"SAP Colombo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref084","article-title":"Immunomodulation and Immune Escape Strategies of Gastrointestinal Helminths and Schistosomes.","author":"M Wiedemann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref085","first-page":"189","article-title":"The impact of two treatment approaches on the prevalence and infection intensity of schistosomiasis, soil transmitted helminthiasis (STH), malaria and anaemia among school and pre-school children in Magu district, Tanzania.","volume":"14","author":"S. Kinung\u2019Hi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2006.05.012","article-title":"Age-related changes in hookworm infection, anaemia and iron deficiency in an area of high Necator americanus hookworm transmission in south-eastern Brazil","volume":"101","author":"S Brooker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref087","first-page":"468","article-title":"Mathematical modeling of the interruption of the transmission of soil transmitted helminths infections in Kenya","volume":"103","author":"C Okoyo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0011496.ref088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.19-0376","article-title":"Effectiveness of a Behavior Change Intervention with Hand Sanitizer Use and Respiratory Hygiene in Reducing Laboratory-Confirmed Influenza among Schoolchildren in Bangladesh: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"101","author":"D Biswas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2027","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-06012-1","article-title":"Estimating the population at risk with soil transmitted helminthiasis and annual drug requirements for preventive chemotherapy in Ogun State, Nigeria.","volume":"12","author":"HO Mogaji","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0011496.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355770X22000079","article-title":"Using choice modelling to identify popular and affordable alternative interventions for schistosomiasis in Uganda.","volume":"27","author":"K Meginnis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ Dev Econ."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2017.09.004","article-title":"Tailoring Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Targets for Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis and Schistosomiasis Control.","volume":"34","author":"SJ Campbell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3532-6","article-title":"The role of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions in reducing soil-transmitted helminths: interpreting the evidence and identifying next steps.","volume":"12","author":"S Vaz Nery","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0011496.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1001620","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001620","article-title":"Water, Sanitation, Hygiene, and Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infection: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.","volume":"11","author":"EC Strunz","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0011496.ref094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1194","DOI":"10.1002\/cl2.1194","article-title":"Interventions promoting uptake of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) technologies in low- and middle-income countries: An evidence and gap map of effectiveness studies.","volume":"17","author":"H Chirgwin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Campbell Syst Rev"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0011496.ref095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2397","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002397","article-title":"Impact of Health Education on Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections in Schoolchildren of the Peruvian Amazon: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial.","volume":"7","author":"TW Gyorkos","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0011496.ref096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0006389","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006389","article-title":"(S)WASH-D for Worms: A pilot study investigating the differential impact of school- versus community-based integrated control programs for soil-transmitted helminths.","volume":"12","author":"NE Clarke","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0011496.ref097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-416","article-title":"Developing and evaluating health education learning package (HELP) to control soil-transmitted helminth infections among Orang Asli children in Malaysia.","volume":"7","author":"AK Al-Delaimy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref098","article-title":"Soil-Transmitted Helminth Vaccines: Are We Getting Closer?","author":"A Zawawi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"issue":"14","key":"pntd.0011496.ref099","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1845","DOI":"10.1017\/S003118201700138X","article-title":"Recombinant subunit vaccines for soil-transmitted helminths","volume":"144","author":"JB Noon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0011496.ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0008057","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008057","article-title":"Protective immunity elicited by the nematode-conserved As37 recombinant protein against Ascaris suum infection.","volume":"14","author":"L Versteeg","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2535","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02535","article-title":"IgG Induced by Vaccination With Ascaris suum Extracts Is Protective Against Infection.","volume":"9","author":"AC Gazzinelli-Guimar\u00e3es","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0011496.ref102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7519(73)90061-1","article-title":"Functional antigens of Trichuris muris. The stimulation of immunity by vaccination of mice with somatic antigen preparations","volume":"3","author":"D Wakelin","year":"1973","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0011496.ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005574","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005574","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of the Na-GST-1 hookworm vaccine in Brazilian and American adults.","volume":"11","author":"DJ Diemert","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04010-8","article-title":"Twenty-five-year research progress in hookworm excretory\/secretory products.","volume":"13","author":"AMI Abuzeid","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800295","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.800295","article-title":"Mucosal Vaccination With Recombinant Tm-WAP49 Protein Induces Protective Humoral and Cellular Immunity Against Experimental Trichuriasis in AKR Mice.","volume":"13","author":"J Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711650","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.711650","article-title":"Promising Technologies in the Field of Helminth Vaccines.","volume":"12","author":"DJ Perera","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2016.01.006","article-title":"Hamsters vaccinated with Ace-mep-7 DNA vaccine produced protective immunity against Ancylostoma ceylanicum infection","volume":"163","author":"M Wi\u015bniewski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp Parasitol"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0011496.ref108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00153-5","article-title":"Vaccination of human participants with attenuated Necator americanus hookworm larvae and human challenge in Australia: a dose-finding study and randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 1 trial","volume":"21","author":"PR Chapman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0011496.ref109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2018.04.008","article-title":"Preventive Chemotherapy in the Fight against Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis: Achievements and Limitations","volume":"34","author":"JD Schulz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"pntd.0011496.ref110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-266","article-title":"Can chemotherapy alone eliminate the transmission of soil transmitted helminths?","volume":"7","author":"JE Truscott","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors."}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011496","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]],"date-time":"2023-12-18T21:29:47Z","timestamp":1702934987000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011496"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Alberto Novaes","family":"Ramos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011496","relation":{},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]]}}}