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Notable culprits include West Nile virus (WNV), St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), all transmitted by <jats:italic>Culex<\/jats:italic> mosquitoes. Chemical insecticides have been widely used to reduce the spread of mosquito-borne diseases. Still, mosquitoes are becoming more and more resistant to most chemical insecticides which cause particular harm to the ecology. <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> belongs to the family Ehrlichiaceae in the order Rickettsiales and is a matrilineally inherited endosymbiont present in 60% of insects in nature. <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> is capable of inducing a wide range of reproductive abnormalities in its hosts, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility, and can alter mosquito resistance to pathogen infection. <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> has been proposed as a biological alternative to chemical vector control, and specific research progress and effectiveness have been achieved. Despite the importance of <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>, this strategy has not been tested in <jats:italic>Culex pipiens pallens<\/jats:italic>, the most prevalent mosquito species in Shandong Province, China. Little is known about how the mass release of <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>-infected mosquitoes may impact the genetic structure of <jats:italic>Culex pipiens pallens<\/jats:italic>, and how the symbiotic bacterium <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> interacts with mitochondria during host mosquito transmission. Based on the population genetic structure of <jats:italic>Culex pipiens pallens<\/jats:italic> in Shandong Province, this study investigated the infection rate and infection type of <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> in Shandong Province and jointly analysed the evolutionary relationship between the host mosquito and the symbiotic bacterium <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>. Our study showed that <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> naturally infected by <jats:italic>Culex pipiens pallens<\/jats:italic> in Shandong Province was less homologous to <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> infected by <jats:italic>Aedes albopictus<\/jats:italic> released from mosquito factory in Guangzhou. Our results also show that <jats:italic>Culex pipiens pallens<\/jats:italic> is undergoing demographic expansion in Shandong Province. The overall <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> infection rate of <jats:italic>Culex pipiens pallens<\/jats:italic> was 92.8%, and a total of 15 WSP haplotypes were detected. We found that the genetic diversity of <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> was low in <jats:italic>Culex pipiens pallens<\/jats:italic> from Shandong Province, and the mosquitoes were infected only with type B <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>. Visualizing the relationship between <jats:italic>Culex pipiens pallens<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> using a tanglegram revealed patterns of widespread associations. A specific coevolutionary relationship exists between the host mosquito and <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>. Knowledge of this mosquito\u2013<jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> relationship will provide essential scientific information required for <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic>-based vector control approaches in Shandong Province and will lead to a better understanding of the diversity and evolution of <jats:italic>Wolbachia<\/jats:italic> for its utility as a biocontrol agent.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011944","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,12]],"date-time":"2024-09-12T17:40:28Z","timestamp":1726162828000},"page":"e0011944","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Wolbachia and mosquitoes: Exploring transmission modes and coevolutionary dynamics in Shandong Province, 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