{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T20:03:47Z","timestamp":1788206627716,"version":"build-2803163510"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012070","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,4]],"date-time":"2024-04-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712188800000}}],"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]],"date-time":"2024-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711324800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["109-2621-B-020-001, 110-2621-B-020-001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["109-2621-B-020-001, 110-2621-B-020-001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and National Pingtung University of Science and Technology Joint Research Program","award":["CGMH-NPUST-2022-CORPG8M0111"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CGMH-NPUST-2022-CORPG8M0111"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Snakebite envenomation is a significant global health issue that requires specific antivenom treatments. In Taiwan, available antivenoms target a variety of snakes, but none specifically target <jats:italic>Trimeresurus gracilis<\/jats:italic>, an endemic and protected species found in the high mountain areas of Taiwan. This study evaluated the effectiveness of existing antivenoms against <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gracilis<\/jats:italic> venom, focusing on a bivalent antivenom developed for <jats:italic>Trimeresurus stejnegeri<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Protobothrops mucrosquamatu<\/jats:italic>s (TsPmAV), as well as monovalent antivenoms for <jats:italic>Deinagkistrodon acutus<\/jats:italic> (DaAV) and <jats:italic>Gloydius brevicaudus<\/jats:italic> (GbAV). Our research involved <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic> toxicity testing in mice and <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> immunobinding experiments using (chaotropic) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, comparing venoms from four pit viper species (<jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gracilis<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>stejnegeri<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>mucrosquamatus<\/jats:italic>, and <jats:italic>D<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>acutus<\/jats:italic>) with three types of antivenoms. These findings indicate that TsPmAV partially neutralized <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gracilis<\/jats:italic> venom, marginally surpassing the efficacy of DaAV. <jats:italic>In vitro<\/jats:italic> tests revealed that GbAV displayed higher binding capacities toward <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gracilis<\/jats:italic> venom than TsPmAV or DaAV. Comparisons of electrophoretic profiles also reveal that <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gracilis<\/jats:italic> venom has fewer snake venom C-type lectin like proteins than <jats:italic>D<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>acutus<\/jats:italic>, and has more P-I snake venom metalloproteases or fewer phospholipase A<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> than <jats:italic>G<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>brevicaudus<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>stejnegeri<\/jats:italic>, or <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>mucrosquamatus<\/jats:italic>. This study highlights the need for antivenoms that specifically target <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gracilis<\/jats:italic>, as current treatments using TsPmAV show limited effectiveness in neutralizing local effects in patients. These findings provide crucial insights into clinical treatment protocols and contribute to the understanding of the evolutionary adaptation of snake venom, aiding in the development of more effective antivenoms for human health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012070","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]],"date-time":"2024-03-25T17:45:24Z","timestamp":1711388724000},"page":"e0012070","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["In vitro immunoreactivity and in vivo neutralization of Trimeresurus gracilis venom with antivenoms targeting four pit viper 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