{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T18:10:37Z","timestamp":1791310237511,"version":"4.3.1"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012541","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738281600000}}],"reference-count":67,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]],"date-time":"2025-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737417600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BB\/S000143\/2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/S000143\/2"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BB\/S00243X\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/S00243X\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Global Alliance for Veterinary Medicine GALVmed","award":["Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (Investment ID OPP1093639) and UKAID (Project 300504)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (Investment ID OPP1093639) and UKAID (Project 300504)"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BBS\/E\/D\/20002173 & BBS\/E\/RL\/230002C"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BBS\/E\/D\/20002173 & BBS\/E\/RL\/230002C"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BB\/X511110\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/X511110\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) in cattle is primarily managed through trypanocide administration and insecticide application. Trypanocides can be used for both treatment and prophylaxis, but failure is often reported; this may occur due to resistance, substandard drugs, or inappropriate administration. This study in Tanzania aims to quantify reasons for trypanocide failure. An observational year-long longitudinal study was conducted in high-risk AAT areas in Serengeti District between June 2021-October 2022. Purposive sampling targeted herds with high utilization of the prophylactic trypanocide isometamidium chloride (ISM). When a farmer administered a trypanocide (ISM, diminazine aceturate, homidium), the project veterinarian assessed administration and treatment outcomes were determined based on PCR results from blood samples. A multivariable mixed model was utilized to evaluate risk factors for prophylaxis failure. Quality analysis was performed on trypanocide samples using High Performance Liquid Chromatography.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>A total of 630 cattle from 21 farms were monitored for a year-long period. A total of 295 trypanocide administrations were reported, predominantly being ISM (56%) used for prophylaxis (87%). One-third of trypanocide administrations were not given adequately, and many trypanocides were given to animals that tested negative for trypanosome infections by PCR. Failures occurred in 7% (95% CI 3.0\u201314%) of curative treatments, and 44% (95% CI 35\u201342%) of prophylactic administrations. The brand of ISM was significantly associated with odds of prophylaxis failure (p = 0.011). On quality analysis, two ISM samples had no detectable ISM isomers, but the remainder of ISM and DA samples (n = 46) fell within the range of acceptable levels. Drug counterfeiting, inadequate use of trypanocides, and resistance are all contributing to trypanocide failure, limiting effective AAT control and with implications for human disease risk. In order to curb trypanocide failure a multi-modal approach to managing the use of trypanocides is required to address all contributing factors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012541","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]],"date-time":"2025-01-21T13:30:28Z","timestamp":1737466228000},"page":"e0012541","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Longitudinal observational (single cohort) study on the causes of trypanocide failure in cases of African animal trypanosomosis in cattle near wildlife protected areas of Northern Tanzania"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6000-0422","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Shauna","family":"Richards","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Davide","family":"Pagnossin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul Samson","family":"Buyugu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oliver","family":"Manangwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Furaha","family":"Mramba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Sindoya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edith","family":"Paxton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steve J.","family":"Torr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ryan","family":"Ritchie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni E.","family":"Rossi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lawrence Nnadozie","family":"Anyanwu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael P.","family":"Barrett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liam J.","family":"Morrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harriet","family":"Auty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"pntd.0012541.ref001","volume-title":"The Trypanosomiases","author":"MC Eisler","year":"2004"},{"key":"pntd.0012541.ref002","article-title":"Transmission Dynamics of Rhodesian Sleeping Sickness at the Interface of Wildlife and Livestock Areas","volume":"xx","author":"HK Auty","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"pntd.0012541.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)05778-6","article-title":"The origins of a new Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness outbreak in eastern Uganda","volume":"358","author":"EM Fevre","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"pntd.0012541.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03597-x","article-title":"An invariant Trypanosoma vivax vaccine antigen induces protective immunity","volume":"595","author":"D Autheman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"pntd.0012541.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2021.04.007","article-title":"Pharma to farmer: field challenges of optimizing trypanocide use in African animal trypanosomiasis","volume":"37","author":"S Richards","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"pntd.0012541.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s13570-014-0021-6","article-title":"Inscrutable medicines and marginal markets: tackling substandard veterinary drugs in Nigeria","volume":"5","author":"P. 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