{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T21:44:59Z","timestamp":1778881499519,"version":"3.51.4"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012577","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,30]],"date-time":"2025-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751241600000}}],"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]],"date-time":"2025-06-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749772800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000272","name":"National Institute for Health and Care Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIHR302758"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR302758"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000272","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>An increase in global migration towards developed countries along with climate change has led to the occurrence of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) in otherwise non-endemic countries. In this paper we focus on Soil Transmitted Helminth (STH) infections which disproportionately affect people living in poverty in tropical regions. To reduce the threat of STHs in migrant populations living in non-endemic countries, diagnosis and treatment are paramount but also present logistical challenges. This study investigates how statistical modelling can be used to assist the identification of individuals infected with STHs. Specifically, we show how to combine individual variables (e.g., age, sex and time in Italy) with publicly available country indicators (Human Development Index, Multidimensional Poverty Index and Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index) which describe development in the migrant\u2019s country of origin. We combine these indices and their factors in binomial mixed-effects models which can be used to predict the status of STH infections in migrant populations. By presenting a case study on migrants in southern Italy, we assess the relative importance of the individual-level variables and country-level indicators in enhancing the predictive power of the models. The results show that the country-level indices play a more important role but also highlight that individual data can help improve the model performance when combined with the former. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study investigating using country-level indicators to predict parasite infection status of migrants. Our study indicates that statistical models can play an important role in reducing the resources required to identify migrants requiring anthelmintic treatment against STHs and help to make statistically informed decisions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012577","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]],"date-time":"2025-06-13T17:46:32Z","timestamp":1749836792000},"page":"e0012577","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Combining country indicators and individual variables to predict soil-transmitted helminth infections among migrant populations: A case study from southern Italy"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2528-9483","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jana","family":"Purkiss","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paola","family":"Pepe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Na\u00edm Alex Karol","family":"Poplawski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maria Paola","family":"Maurelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luciano","family":"Gualdieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Rinaldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emanuele","family":"Giorgi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref001","author":"World Health Organization"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0012577.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010575","article-title":"Reduction in DALYs lost due to soil-transmitted helminthiases and schistosomiasis from 2000 to 2019 is parallel to the increase in coverage of the global control programmes","volume":"16","author":"A Montresor","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref003","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-018-1241-2","article-title":"Neglected tropical diseases in Europe: rare diseases and orphan drugs?","volume":"47","author":"G Calleri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2025.102823","article-title":"Prevalence of neglected tropical diseases among migrants living in Europe: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"64","author":"G Guido","year":"2025","journal-title":"Travel Med Infect Dis"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0012577.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11004","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph111011004","article-title":"Screening for infectious diseases among newly arrived migrants in EU\/EEA countries--varying practices but consensus on the utility of screening","volume":"11","author":"T K\u00e4rki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0012577.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.3109\/00365549409011784","article-title":"Intestinal parasites in refugees and asylum seekers entering the Stockholm area, 1987\u201388: evaluation of routine stool screening","volume":"26","author":"A Persson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Scand J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0012577.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2010.02629.x","article-title":"Population movement: a key factor in the epidemiology of neglected tropical diseases","volume":"15","author":"J Aagaard-Hansen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763715","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/763715","article-title":"Importation and Transmission of Parasitic and Other Infectious Diseases Associated with International Adoptees and Refugees Immigrating into the United States of America","volume":"2015","author":"J Smith Darr","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed Res Int"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0012577.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1708-8305.2006.00045.x","article-title":"Undiagnosed and potentially lethal parasite infections among immigrants and refugees in Australia","volume":"13","author":"SR Caruana","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Travel Med"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0012577.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000762","article-title":"Neglected tropical diseases outside the tropics","volume":"4","author":"FF Norman","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0012577.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2017.02.024","article-title":"Seroprevalence of five neglected parasitic diseases among immigrants accessing five infectious and tropical diseases units in Italy: a cross-sectional study","volume":"23","author":"G Martelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1007\/s40475-020-00221-2","article-title":"Soil-Transmitted Helminths in the USA: a Review of Five Common Parasites and Future Directions for Avenues of Enhanced Epidemiologic Inquiry","volume":"8","author":"MK Lynn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Trop Med Rep"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0012577.ref014","article-title":"Longevity of Trichuris trichiura infection in the human host","volume":"29","author":"Y Akelew","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Travel Med"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref015","first-page":"20499361221116680","article-title":"Screening for neglected tropical diseases and other infections in refugee and asylum-seeker populations in the United Kingdom","volume":"9","author":"P Cinardo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ther Adv Infect Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0012577.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2010.12.003","article-title":"Intestinal parasites in immigrants in the city of Naples (southern Italy)","volume":"117","author":"L Gualdieri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-7622-3-3","article-title":"The basic principles of migration health: population mobility and gaps in disease prevalence","volume":"3","author":"BD Gushulak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerg Themes Epidemiol"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195138382.003.0004","article-title":"Multilevel Methods for Public Health Research.","volume-title":"Neighborhoods and Health","author":"SV Subramanian","year":"2003"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref019","volume-title":"Human Development Report 2010: The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development","author":"UNDP","year":"2010"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0012577.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2436","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.30382","article-title":"A global view on cancer incidence and national levels of the human development index","volume":"139","author":"MM Fidler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int J Cancer"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0012577.ref021","article-title":"Association between tuberculosis incidence and the Human Development Index in 165 countries of the world","volume":"30","author":"DM Casta\u00f1eda-Hern\u00e1ndez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev Peru Med Exp Salud Publica"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-13698-5","article-title":"Correlation between human development index and its components with COVID-19 indices: a global level ecologic study","volume":"22","author":"A Mirahmadizadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-020-1291-8","article-title":"Trends in prevalence and incidence of chronic respiratory diseases from 1990 to 2017","volume":"21","author":"M Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Respir Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0012577.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1080\/09603123.2020.1798890","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis on the co-infection of Helicobacter pylori with intestinal parasites: public health issue or neglected correlation?","volume":"32","author":"A Taghipour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Health Res"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0012577.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003782","article-title":"Impact of the Neglected Tropical Diseases on Human Development in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Nations","volume":"9","author":"PJ Hotez","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0012577.ref026","first-page":"368","article-title":"Enteroparasitosis in Peru and its relation to the Human Development Index","volume":"59","author":"J Iannacone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev Med Inst Mex Seguro Soc"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0012577.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003618","article-title":"Helminth elimination in the pursuit of sustainable development goals: a \u201cworm index\u201d for human development","volume":"9","author":"PJ Hotez","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref028","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Migration Report 2022"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0012577.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2009.235","article-title":"FLOTAC: new multivalent techniques for qualitative and quantitative copromicroscopic diagnosis of parasites in animals and humans","volume":"5","author":"G Cringoli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat Protoc"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s40475-022-00280-7","article-title":"Improving Diagnosis of Intestinal Parasites Towards a Migrant-Friendly Health System","volume":"10","author":"MP Maurelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Current Tropical Medicine Reports"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0587.2012.07348.x","article-title":"Collinearity: A review of methods to deal with it and a simulation study evaluating their performance","volume":"36","author":"C Dormann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0012577.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006322","article-title":"Extending the global worm index and its links to human development and child education","volume":"12","author":"S Kang","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref033","volume-title":"R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing","author":"RC Team","year":"2023"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref034","volume-title":"Boot: Bootstrap R (S-Plus)FunctionsPatchwork","author":"&nbsp","year":"2022"},{"issue":"28","key":"pntd.0012577.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.00848","article-title":"countrycode: An R package to convert country names and country codes","volume":"3","author":"V Arel-Bundock","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Open Source Software"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref036","volume-title":"Forestplot: Advanced forest plot using \u2018grid\u2019 graphics","author":"M Gordon","year":"2023"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref037","volume-title":"dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation","author":"H Wickham","year":"2023"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24277-4","volume-title":"ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis","author":"H Wickham","year":"2016"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref039","volume-title":"Gridextra: miscellaneous functions for grid graphics","author":"B Auguie","year":"2017"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4","volume":"67","author":"D Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref041","volume-title":"MatrixStats: Functions that Apply to Rows and Columns of Matrices (and to Vectors)","author":"H Bengtsson","year":"2023"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref042","volume-title":"Patchwork","author":"PT Lin","year":"2024"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-12-77","article-title":"pROC: an open-source package for R and S+ to analyze and compare ROC curves","volume":"12","author":"X Robin","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMC Bioinformatics"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref044","volume-title":"Raster: Geographic Data Analysis and Modeling","author":"RJ Hijmans","year":"2023"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref045","volume-title":"Rnaturalearth","author":"PSA Massicotte","year":"2023"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref046","unstructured":"Jaeger B. Table.glue: Make and apply customized rounding specifications for tables. 2023."},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref047","volume-title":"Tidyr: Tidy messy data","author":"H Wickham","year":"2023"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref048","unstructured":"Garnier S, Ross N, Rudis R. Viridis (Lite) - Colorblind-Friendly Color Maps for R. 2024."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0012577.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.2307\/2983604","article-title":"Contingency tables involving small numbers and the \u03c72 test","volume":"1","author":"F Yates","year":"2018","journal-title":"Royal Statistical Society Journal Supplement"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2397-2335.1922.tb00768.x","article-title":"On the interpretation of \u03c72 from contingency tables, and the calculation of P","volume":"85","author":"RA Fisher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Royal Statistical Society Journal"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0012577.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007201","article-title":"Challenges and opportunities for control and elimination of soil-transmitted helminth infection beyond 2020","volume":"13","author":"MC Freeman","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0012577.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4081\/gh.2021.1049","article-title":"Development of a public geographical information system-based website to follow the impact of control activities of soil-transmitted helminths in endemic countries","volume":"16","author":"MP Maurelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geospat Health"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0012577.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwj063","article-title":"The inconsistency of \u201coptimal\u201d cutpoints obtained using two criteria based on the receiver operating characteristic curve","volume":"163","author":"NJ Perkins","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"23","key":"pntd.0012577.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2676","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.4509","article-title":"Classification accuracy and cut point\u2009selection","volume":"31","author":"X Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Stat Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(1950)3:1<32::AID-CNCR2820030106>3.0.CO;2-3","article-title":"Index for rating diagnostic tests","volume":"3","author":"WJ Youden","year":"1950","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0012577.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1080\/03610926.2018.1435809","article-title":"Three optimal cut-point selection criteria based on sensitivity and specificity with user-defined weights","volume":"48","author":"D Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Communications in Statistics - Theory and Methods"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0012577.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csda.2007.01.017","article-title":"Maximally selected chi-squared statistics and non-monotonic associations: An exact approach based on two cutpoints","volume":"51","author":"A Boulesteix","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput Stat Data Anal"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0012577.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-015-4868-2","article-title":"Immigrants living in an urban milieu with sanitation in Southern Italy: persistence and transmission of intestinal parasites","volume":"115","author":"L Gualdieri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasitol Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001162","article-title":"Effect of sanitation on soil-transmitted helminth infection: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"K Ziegelbauer","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0012577.ref060","first-page":"422","article-title":"Intestinal parasites in southeast Asian refugees two years after immigration","volume":"149","author":"CD Molina","year":"1988","journal-title":"West J Med"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2427\/7532","article-title":"The \u201chealthy immigrant\u201d effect: does it exist in Europe today?","volume":"9","author":"A Domnich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Italian Journal of Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref062","article-title":"COVID-19 and neglected tropical diseases among refugees: plight of a vulnerable population in Africa","volume":"2","author":"IO Ogunkola","year":"2023","journal-title":"Public Health Chall"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref063","article-title":"Public health aspects of migrant health: a review of the evidence on health status for undocumented migrants in the European Region","author":"E De Vito","year":"2015"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012577.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7424","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-34572-3","article-title":"Characterizing non-communicable disease trends in undocumented migrants over a period of 10 years in Italy","volume":"13","author":"G Fiorini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref065","volume-title":"Blue marble health: A new presidential roadmap for global poverty-related diseases","author":"PJ Hotez","year":"2014"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762007005000093","article-title":"Epidemiology of Chagas disease in non-endemic countries: the role of international migration","author":"GA Schmunis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref067","year":"2002"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0012577.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008505","article-title":"The global progress of soil-transmitted helminthiases control in 2020 and World Health Organization targets for 2030","volume":"14","author":"A Montresor","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0012577.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/inthealth\/ihac010","article-title":"How can the neglected tropical disease community be inclusive and equitable in programme delivery? Reaching refugees and internally displaced persons through integrating a \u201cleave no one behind\u201d approach","volume":"14","author":"D Harvey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0012577.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1080\/09581596.2013.836589","article-title":"Chagas disease in non-endemic countries: \u2018sick immigrant\u2019 phobia or a public health concern?","volume":"24","author":"FG De Maio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Critical Public Health"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012577","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,30]],"date-time":"2025-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751241600000}}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012577","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,30]],"date-time":"2025-06-30T17:50:35Z","timestamp":1751305835000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012577"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Domenico","family":"Otranto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012577","relation":{"new_version":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012577","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]]}}}