{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T14:49:24Z","timestamp":1787496564093,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]],"date-time":"2025-06-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748822400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["INV-030046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-030046"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Schistosomiasis affects more than 230 million people worldwide. Control and elimination of this parasitic infection is based on mass drug administration of praziquantel (PZQ), which has been in use for several decades. Because of the limitations of the efficacy of PZQ especially against juvenile worms, and the threat of the emergence of resistance, there is a need to consider alternative formulations or delivery methods, or new drugs that could be more efficacious. We use an individual-based stochastic model of parasite transmission to investigate the effects of possible improvements to drug efficacy. We consider an increase in efficacy compared to PZQ, as well as additional efficacy against the juvenile life stage of schistosome parasites in the human host, and a slow-release formulation that would provide long-lasting efficacy for a period of time following treatment. Analyses suggest a drug with a high efficacy of 99%, or with efficacy lasting 24 weeks after treatment, are the two most effective individual improvements to the drug profile of PZQ. A drug with long lasting efficacy is most beneficial when MDA coverage is low. However, when prevalence of infection has already been reduced to a low level, a high efficacy is the most important factor to accelerate interruption of transmission. Our results indicate that increased efficacy against juvenile worms can only result in modest benefits, but the development of a new drug formulation with higher efficacy against adult worms or long-lasting efficacy would create an improvement to the community impact over the currently used formulation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012624","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]],"date-time":"2025-06-02T14:16:31Z","timestamp":1748873791000},"page":"e0012624","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["How improvements to drug effectiveness impact mass drug administration for control and elimination of schistosomiasis"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5438-4244","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"John R.","family":"Ellis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nyamai","family":"Mutono","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreia","family":"Vasconcelos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel M.","family":"Thumbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"T. D\u00e9irdre","family":"Hollingsworth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roy M.","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9936","key":"pntd.0012624.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2253","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61949-2","article-title":"Human schistosomiasis","volume":"383","author":"D Colley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012624.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-706X(00)00122-4","article-title":"The global status of schistosomiasis and its control","volume":"77","author":"L Chitsulo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref003","first-page":"1","article-title":"Current drug strategies for the treatment and control of schistosomiasis","author":"MA Villamizar-Monsalve","year":"2024","journal-title":"Expert Opin Pharmacother"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref004","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Ending the neglect to attain the sustainable development goals: a road map for neglected tropical diseases 2021\u20132030. 2021."},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012624.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1157-y","article-title":"What is required in terms of mass drug administration to interrupt the transmission of schistosome parasites in regions of endemic infection?","volume":"8","author":"RM Anderson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref006","first-page":"142","volume-title":"WHO guideline on control and elimination of human schistosomiasis","author":"World Health Organization.","year":"2022"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0012624.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.3c00081","article-title":"Perspective on schistosomiasis drug discovery: highlights from a schistosomiasis drug discovery workshop at Wellcome Collection, London, September 2022","volume":"9","author":"N Caldwell","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Infect Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0012624.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.4.2.199","article-title":"Praziquantel for the treatment of schistosomiasis: its use for control in areas with endemic disease and prospects for drug resistance","volume":"4","author":"MJ Doenhoff","year":"2006","journal-title":"Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0012624.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182009005708","article-title":"The saga of schistosome migration and attrition","volume":"136","author":"R Wilson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Parasitol"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0012624.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000257","article-title":"Tracking the odysseys of juvenile schistosomes to understand host interactions","volume":"2","author":"MK Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000080896","article-title":"A statistical approach to schistosome population dynamics and estimation of the life-span of Schistosoma mansoni in man","author":"AJ Fulford","year":"1995","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012624.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1006\/expr.1997.4149","article-title":"Schistosoma mansoni: maturation rate and drug susceptibility of different geographic isolates","volume":"86","author":"PG Fallon","year":"1997","journal-title":"Exp Parasitol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0012624.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2003.12.003","article-title":"Sex- and stage-related sensitivity of Schistosoma mansoni to in vivo and in vitro praziquantel treatment","volume":"34","author":"L Pica-Mattoccia","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0012624.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0759-x","article-title":"A controlled human Schistosoma mansoni infection model to advance novel drugs, vaccines and diagnostics","volume":"26","author":"MCC Langenberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0012624.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2013.02.001","article-title":"Schistosomiasis in African infants and preschool children: let them now be treated!","volume":"29","author":"JR Stothard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0012624.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(86)90184-0","article-title":"Schistosoma mansoni: chemotherapy of infections of different ages","volume":"61","author":"AA Sabah","year":"1986","journal-title":"Exp Parasitol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0012624.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009313","article-title":"Validation of a human-serum-based in vitro growth method for drug screening on juvenile development stages of Schistosoma mansoni","volume":"15","author":"V Buchter","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2018.01.014","article-title":"Solid dispersions to enhance the delivery of a potential drug candidate LPSF\/FZ4 for the treatment of schistosomiasis","volume":"115","author":"GCRM Schver","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur J Pharm Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0012624.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpddr.2017.05.002","article-title":"Elimination of Schistosoma mansoni in infected mice by slow release of artemisone","volume":"7","author":"D Gold","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(08)60561-8","article-title":"Helminth infections of humans: mathematical models, population dynamics and control.","volume":"24","author":"RM Anderson","year":"1985","journal-title":"Adv Parasitol."},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref021","first-page":"199","article-title":"Studies of the transmission dynamics, mathematical model development and the control of schistosome parasites by mass drug administration in human communities.","volume-title":"Advances in Parasitology","author":"RM Anderson","year":"2016"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012624.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-022-05178-x","article-title":"Determining the optimal strategies to achieve elimination of transmission for schistosoma mansoni","volume":"15","author":"K Kura","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0012624.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009946","article-title":"What is the impact of acquired immunity on the transmission of schistosomiasis and the efficacy of current and planned mass drug administration programmes?","volume":"15","author":"K Kura","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012624.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04409-3","article-title":"The impact of mass drug administration on schistosoma haematobium infection: what is required to achieve morbidity control and elimination?","volume":"13","author":"K Kura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0012624.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(85)90087-2","article-title":"Density-dependent fecundity in Schistosoma mansoni infections in man","volume":"79","author":"G Medley","year":"1985","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref026","first-page":"438","article-title":"SCHISTOX: An individual based model for the epidemiology and control of schistosomiasis","volume":"6","author":"M Graham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect Dis Model"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref027","article-title":"How does treatment coverage and proportion never treated influence the success of schistosoma mansoni elimination as a public health problem by 2030?","volume":"78","author":"K Kura","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2017.02.003","article-title":"A comparison of two mathematical models of the impact of mass drug administration on the transmission and control of schistosomiasis","volume":"18","author":"JE Truscott","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0012624.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003286","article-title":"Clinical efficacy and tolerability of praziquantel for intestinal and urinary schistosomiasis\u2014a meta-analysis of comparative and non-comparative clinical trials","volume":"8","author":"J Zwang","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2017.02.002","article-title":"Measuring and modelling the effects of systematic non-adherence to mass drug administration","volume":"18","author":"L Dyson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref031","article-title":"Patterns of individual compliance with anthelmintic treatment for soil-transmitted helminth infections in southern ethiopia over six rounds of community-wide mass drug administration","author":"R Maddren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"5867","key":"pntd.0012624.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1038\/297557a0","article-title":"Population dynamics of human helminth infections: control by chemotherapy","volume":"297","author":"RM Anderson","year":"1982","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012624.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/096228029300200102","article-title":"Statistical models for estimating prevalence and incidence of parasitic diseases","volume":"2","author":"SJ de Vlas","year":"1993","journal-title":"Stat Methods Med Res"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1017\/S003118200006371X","article-title":"A model for variations in single and repeated egg counts in Schistosoma mansoni infections","author":"SJ De Vlas","year":"1992","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012624.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2141-5","article-title":"Evaluating the variation in the projected benefit of community-wide mass treatment for schistosomiasis: Implications for future economic evaluations","volume":"10","author":"HC Turner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0012624.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006717","article-title":"The design of schistosomiasis monitoring and evaluation programmes: The importance of collecting adult data to inform treatment strategies for Schistosoma mansoni","volume":"12","author":"J Toor","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012624.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3611-8","article-title":"Determining post-treatment surveillance criteria for predicting the elimination of Schistosoma mansoni transmission","volume":"12","author":"J Toor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0012624.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1968.17.38","article-title":"A quantitative post-mortem study of Schistosomiasis mansoni in man","volume":"17","author":"AW Cheever","year":"1968","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1138-1","article-title":"Estimation of changes in the force of infection for intestinal and urogenital schistosomiasis in countries with schistosomiasis control initiative-assisted programmes","volume":"8","author":"MD French","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pntd.0012624.ref040","first-page":"202","article-title":"Infectious diseases of humans: dynamics and control","volume-title":"Trends in Microbiology","author":"RM Anderson","year":"1991"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0012624.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009189","article-title":"Efficacy of praziquantel has been maintained over four decades (from 1977 to 2018): A systematic review and meta-analysis of factors influence its efficacy","volume":"15","author":"M Fukushige","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1887","key":"pntd.0012624.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2022.0273","article-title":"How important is the spatial movement of people in attempts to eliminate the transmission of human helminth infections by mass drug administration?","volume":"378","author":"BS Collyer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0012624.ref043","article-title":"Chemical control of snail vectors as an integrated part of a strategy for the elimination of schistosomiasis\u2014A review of the state of knowledge and future needs","volume":"9","author":"A GarbaDjirmay","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trop Med Infect Dis"}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012624","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]],"date-time":"2025-06-02T14:16:42Z","timestamp":1748873802000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012624"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Song","family":"Liang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012624","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1101\/2024.10.11.24315289","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]]}}}