{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T13:16:19Z","timestamp":1790082979748,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]],"date-time":"2025-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749600000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007865","name":"University of Texas Medical Branch","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glanders is a highly contagious and potentially fatal zoonotic disease that primarily affects equines but can also infect humans. Caused by the bacterium <jats:italic>Burkholderia mallei<\/jats:italic>, the disease is characterized by nodular lesions in the lungs and ulcerations of the skin and mucous membranes. This review explores the historical significance of glanders, from its early recognition to its role as a biothreat agent. Additionally, it examines the global distribution and epidemiology of glanders, emphasizing its status as a re-emerging disease in certain regions. Finally, the clinical presentation, diagnosis, and host-immunity responses to <jats:italic>B. mallei<\/jats:italic> infection are discussed, with a focus on the ongoing efforts to develop a viable vaccine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0013160","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]],"date-time":"2025-06-11T17:49:14Z","timestamp":1749664154000},"page":"e0013160","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Glanders: An ancient and emergent disease with no vaccine or treatment on site"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6450-0643","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alfredo G.","family":"Torres","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0013160.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1865-1682.2012.01342.x","article-title":"Glanders in animals: a review on epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and countermeasures","volume":"60","author":"I Khan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0013160.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-03071-1_7","article-title":"Burkholderia mallei and Glanders.","volume-title":"Defense against biological attacks","author":"N Khakhum","year":"2019"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0013160.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000922","article-title":"The early stage of bacterial genome-reductive evolution in the host","volume":"6","author":"H Song","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0013160.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.12599","article-title":"Glanders and the risk for its introduction through the international movement of horses","volume":"48","author":"ANB Kettle","year":"2016","journal-title":"Equine Vet J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0013160.ref005","first-page":"79","article-title":"The great glanders epizootic, 1861-1866: a Civil War legacy","volume":"69","author":"GT Sharrer","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric Hist"},{"key":"pntd.0013160.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1017\/S0025727300071799","article-title":"Pierre-Fran\u00e7ois Olive Rayer: biography","volume":"2005","author":"D Berry","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med Hist Suppl"},{"key":"pntd.0013160.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.233.4.570","article-title":"Glanders","volume":"233","author":"GD Dvorak","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0013160.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2007.00949.x","article-title":"Glanders: off to the races with Burkholderia mallei","volume":"277","author":"GC Whitlock","year":"2007","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol Lett"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0013160.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.1992.tb02129.x","article-title":"Proposal of Burkholderia gen. nov. and transfer of seven species of the genus Pseudomonas homology group II to the new genus, with the type species Burkholderia cepacia (Palleroni and Holmes 1981) comb. nov","volume":"36","author":"E Yabuuchi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Microbiol Immunol"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0013160.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1707.110222","article-title":"Natural Burkholderia mallei infection in Dromedary, Bahrain","volume":"17","author":"U Wernery","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0013160.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2345","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00328-16","article-title":"Burkholderia mallei CLH001 attenuated vaccine strain is immunogenic and protects against acute respiratory glanders","volume":"84","author":"CL Hatcher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect Immun"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0013160.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-010-0027-8","article-title":"Re-emergence of glanders in India\u2014report of Maharashtra state","volume":"50","author":"P Malik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Indian J Microbiol"},{"key":"pntd.0013160.ref013","first-page":"152","article-title":"Pliny\u2019s world: all the facts-and then some","volume":"26","author":"J Dennis","year":"1995","journal-title":"Smithsonian"},{"key":"pntd.0013160.ref014","first-page":"10","article-title":"Glanders: an ancient zoonosis revisited","volume":"21","author":"A Shimshony","year":"2008","journal-title":"Infect Dis News"},{"key":"pntd.0013160.ref015","first-page":"381","article-title":"Avicenna and his legacy. 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