{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T19:28:19Z","timestamp":1791487699525,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,4]],"date-time":"2025-08-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754265600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010661","name":"Horizon 2020 Framework Programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["899670"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["899670"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010661","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014013","name":"UK Research and Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MR\/S03398X\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/S03398X\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014013","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["221712\/Z\/20\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["221712\/Z\/20\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000849","name":"National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NC\/X001172\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NC\/X001172\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000849","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Snakebite is a significant public health concern in Africa, with the viperid species <jats:italic><jats:italic>Echis ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> being responsible for the majority of snakebite deaths in West Africa. Recently <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> underwent taxonomic revision and was split into two species, <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus sensu stricto<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>, leading to questions regarding differences in venom bioactivities and the efficacy of antivenoms indicated for treatment of \u2018<jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>\u2019 envenoming against the two redefined species. Using a range of <jats:italic><jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> assays we compared the toxin activities of the two species and the venom-neutralising efficacy of three antivenoms (EchiTAbG, SAIMR Echis and Echiven) raised against \u2018<jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus\u2019<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>. We then used murine preclinical assays to compare the <jats:italic><jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> efficacy of these antivenoms against <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus s. str<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> venoms. Mitochondrial barcoding of snake skins and venom revealed that <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani,<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> and not <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus,<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> is used in the manufacture of several antivenoms raised against \u2018<jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>\u2019. There were also a number of differences in specific toxin activity between the venoms of the two species in the three <jats:italic><jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> assays utilised in this study.; <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Ghana) had the strongest phospholipase A<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> (PLA<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>) activity, followed by weak PLA<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> activity for <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Cameroon) and insignificant activity by <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Nigeria). <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Ghana) and <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Nigeria) demonstrated comparable snake venom metalloproteinase activity, whilst <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Cameroon) had reduced, albeit still significant, activity in comparison. However no differences were observed in a plasma clotting assay measuring coagulopathy between the venoms and localities. Venoms from <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Ghana) and <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Cameroon and Nigeria) were all recognised comparably by the three antivenoms, and there were only modest differences between antivenoms in neutralising the various <jats:italic><jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> toxin effects. In murine preclinical assays, each antivenom could neutralise the lethal effects of <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Nigeria), but differences were seen in their comparative potency when the same antivenom doses were tested against <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Cameroon) and <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Ghana). In these comparative potency assays, all three antivenoms were unable to confer 100% survival when tested against <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Cameroon), but SAIMR Echis provided the best protection with 80% survival. When tested against <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (Ghana), the comparative doses of SAIMR Echis and Echiven provided 100% protection whereas EchiTAbG failed to prevent lethality beyond three hours. This represents the first detailed analysis of differences between <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> venom bioactivities and the efficacy of existing antivenoms against these two species. Our findings demonstrate that EchiTAbG, SAIMR Echis and Echiven antivenoms are preclinically efficacious against the lethal effects of <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. ocellatus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic><jats:italic>E. romani<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> venom across a number of localities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0013371","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,4]],"date-time":"2025-08-04T17:44:37Z","timestamp":1754329477000},"page":"e0013371","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Preclinical evaluation of the neutralising efficacy of three antivenoms against the venoms of the recently taxonomically partitioned E. ocellatus and E. romani"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8574-3724","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rebecca J.","family":"Edge","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amy E.","family":"Marriott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Molly","family":"Keen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tiffany","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edouard P.","family":"Crittenden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charlotte A.","family":"Dawson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark C.","family":"Wilkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wolfgang","family":"W\u00fcster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas R.","family":"Casewell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stuart","family":"Ainsworth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9273-9296","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Stefanie K.","family":"Menzies","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"pntd.0013371.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17063","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.63","article-title":"Snakebite envenoming","volume":"3","author":"JM Guti\u00e9rrez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Primers"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0013371.ref002","first-page":"307","article-title":"The importance of bites by the saw-scaled or carpet viper (Echis carinatus): epidemiological studies in Nigeria and a review of the world literature","volume":"33","author":"DA Warrell","year":"1976","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0013371.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ympev.2009.08.002","article-title":"When continents collide: phylogeny, historical biogeography and systematics of the medically important viper genus Echis (Squamata: Serpentes: Viperidae)","volume":"53","author":"CE Pook","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol Phylogenet Evol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0013371.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004568","article-title":"Cost-Effectiveness of Antivenoms for Snakebite Envenoming in 16 Countries in West Africa","volume":"10","author":"M Hamza","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0013371.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000767","article-title":"Randomised controlled double-blind non-inferiority trial of two antivenoms for saw-scaled or carpet viper (Echis ocellatus) envenoming in Nigeria","volume":"4","author":"IS Abubakar","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0013371.ref006","first-page":"33","article-title":"Poisoning by bites of the saw-scaled or carpet viper (Echis carinatus) in Nigeria","volume":"46","author":"DA Warrell","year":"1977","journal-title":"Q J Med"},{"key":"pntd.0013371.ref007","unstructured":"Trape JF. 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