{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T14:44:33Z","timestamp":1787064273404,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766448000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NextGeneration EU-MUR PNRR Extended Partnership initiative on Emerging Infectious Diseases","award":["PE00000007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000007"]}]},{"name":"NextGeneration EU-MUR PNRR Extended Partnership initiative on Emerging Infectious Diseases","award":["PE00000007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000007"]}]},{"name":"NextGeneration EU-MUR PNRR Extended Partnership initiative on Emerging Infectious Diseases","award":["PE00000007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PE00000007"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      is a neglected tropical parasite that may affect millions of people worldwide, causing infections that range from subclinical to life-threatening in many animal species, including humans. The four subgenera described (i.e.,\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Mundinia<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>Sauroleishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Viannia<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) exhibit distinct biological and ecological characteristics. The genus likely originated during the Mesozoic era, with hypotheses suggesting a Palearctic, Neotropical, or Supercontinent origin. Understanding the evolutionary history of\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      parasites may clarify host specificity, geographic distribution, and vector associations across subgenera.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n                    <jats:title>Methodology and key findings<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In this study, we analyzed\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      evolutionary associations with vertebrate hosts as well as sand fly vectors using a combination of cophylogenetic and maximum parsimony approaches. A significant phylogenetic congruence was found between\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      and its vertebrate hosts using PACo (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u2009<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.0001, m\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      <jats:sub>XY<\/jats:sub>\n                      =0.5419) and ParaFit (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u2009<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.0034, ParaFit Global statistic\u2009=\u20090.012), with several host-switching and duplication events (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u2009<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.0298), particularly involving\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      -humans associations. A cospeciation event was also predicted at a higher taxonomic level, corresponding to the divergence of mammals from reptiles and the subsequent separation of the\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania, Viannia<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Mundinia<\/jats:italic>\n                      subgenera from\n                      <jats:italic>Sauroleishmania.<\/jats:italic>\n                      Similarly, significant cophylogenetic signals were observed between\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      and sand fly hosts using PACo (m\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      <jats:sub>XY<\/jats:sub>\n                      =1.3988,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.0001) and ParaFit (ParaFit Global\u2009=\u20090.062,\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u2009<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.0001) functions. Cospeciation events were again predicted at higher taxonomic levels in the divergence of New World and Old World sand flies, with\n                      <jats:italic>Viannia<\/jats:italic>\n                      species and\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania, Sauroleishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Mundinia<\/jats:italic>\n                      species associated with the latter (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.01).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Our findings support the Supercontinent hypothesis and emphasize the relevance of the historical biogeography in\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      diversification. This comprehensive cophylogenetic analysis enhances our understanding of\n                      <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                      origins and diversification, offering insights into host specificity, vector adaptation, and the long-term maintenance of its digenetic life cycle.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0013814","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T18:25:11Z","timestamp":1766514311000},"page":"e0013814","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Partners in time: Cospeciation and host-switching shape the evolution of Leishmania parasites"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2007-7198","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alicia","family":"Rojas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jairo Alfonso","family":"Mendoza-Roldan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paula","family":"Alfaro-Segura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alberto","family":"Solano-Barquero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Domenico","family":"Otranto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0013814.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-020-0451-5","article-title":"An interactive database of Leishmania species distribution in the Americas","volume":"7","author":"G Herrera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Data"},{"issue":"10151","key":"pntd.0013814.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31204-2","article-title":"Leishmaniasis","volume":"392","author":"S Burza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"35","key":"pntd.0013814.ref003","first-page":"401","article-title":"Global leishmaniasis surveillance: 2019-2020, a baseline for the 2030 roadmap","volume":"96","author":"J Ruiz-Postigo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Weekly Epidemiological Record"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0013814.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-022-03240-z","article-title":"Sand flies: Basic information on the vectors of leishmaniasis and their interactions with Leishmania parasites","volume":"5","author":"P Cec\u00edlio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun Biol"},{"key":"pntd.0013814.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2014011","article-title":"Leishmania (Leishmania) martiniquensis n. sp. 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