{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T13:55:51Z","timestamp":1792504551795,"version":"4.5.0"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014361","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000}}],"reference-count":84,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,26]],"date-time":"2026-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779753600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009708","name":"Novo Nordisk Fonden","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNF21OC0069116"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNF21OC0069116"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009708","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Pioneer Centre","award":["DNRF grant number P1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DNRF grant number P1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Larval source management is a key strategy to control the spread of\n                    <jats:italic>Aedes<\/jats:italic>\n                    -borne viral diseases including dengue, Zika, chikungunya, and yellow fever. However, locating potential larval habitats through traditional field methods is challenging and labor-intensive at scale. Here, we demonstrate a scalable, high-resolution drone imagery and supervised machine learning approach to map potential\n                    <jats:italic>Aedes<\/jats:italic>\n                    larval container habitats across Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, a dense urban environment with informal settlements. Local larval surveillance and existing literature confirm epidemiological relevance of buckets and jerry cans, tires, and water tanks as key potential habitats. Drone images revealed rooftop tires, a container type likely overlooked during ground surveillance. We trained a U-Net deep learning model on very-high-resolution drone imagery (3\u20135 cm resolution) which was manually annotated across 4.6 km\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    , and applied it to predict containers across 27.27 km\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    , spanning 20 neighborhoods. The model predicted over 135,000 containers with detection accuracies of 75% for water tanks, 72% for tires, and 54% for buckets. Bucket and tire densities were strongly and positively correlated with population density across neighborhoods, whereas water tank density was not, suggesting the distribution of these container types reflect distinct underlying drivers. This study reveals otherwise difficult-to-observe container types, highlights the abundance and spatial heterogeneity of potential\n                    <jats:italic>Aedes<\/jats:italic>\n                    larval habitats across Dar es Salaam, and demonstrates a scalable approach for improving detection of potential\n                    <jats:italic>Aedes<\/jats:italic>\n                    larval container habitats in a dense urban environment.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014361","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,26]],"date-time":"2026-05-26T17:46:50Z","timestamp":1779817610000},"page":"e0014361","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["High-resolution automated mapping of potential Aedes larval container habitats using drone imagery and supervised machine learning in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1158-1501","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mary","family":"Hahm","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Venkanna Babu","family":"Guthula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Remigio","family":"Chilaule","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitri","family":"Gominski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alex","family":"Limwagu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Exavery","family":"Chaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fredros","family":"Okumu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leka","family":"Tingitana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anders","family":"Hermund","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucy S.","family":"Tusting","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rasmus","family":"Fensholt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gustavo","family":"Riberio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jakob Brandtberg","family":"Knudsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johan","family":"Mottelson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yeromin","family":"Mlacha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mary","family":"Cameron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2868-0856","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Christian","family":"Igel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,26]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014361.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15020220","article-title":"Aedes mosquitoes and Aedes-borne arboviruses in Africa: current and future threats","volume":"15","author":"D Weetman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref002","unstructured":"WHO. Surveillance and control of arboviral diseases in the WHO African region: assessment of country capacities. 2022. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789240052918"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0014361.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13070605","article-title":"Understanding the transmission dynamics of the Chikungunya virus in Africa","volume":"13","author":"Y Ramphal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0014361.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162649","article-title":"Climate change influences potential distribution of infected Aedes aegypti co-occurrence with dengue epidemics risk areas in Tanzania","volume":"11","author":"CN Mweya","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0014361.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2023-014737","article-title":"Widening geographic range of Rift Valley fever disease clusters associated with climate change in East Africa","volume":"9","author":"S Situma","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3350","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-47161-3","article-title":"Challenges in combating arboviral infections","volume":"15","author":"D Troppens","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref007","unstructured":"WHO. Larval source management: a supplementary malaria vector control measure: an operational manual; 2013. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789241505604"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crpvbd.2021.100074","article-title":"Review of the ecology and behaviour of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in Western Africa and implications for vector control","volume":"2","author":"BR Egid","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Res Parasitol Vector Borne Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06621-x","article-title":"Elevating larval source management as a key strategy for controlling malaria and other vector-borne diseases in Africa","volume":"18","author":"F Okumu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0014361.ref010","article-title":"Efficacy of household Aedes larval control practices in a peri-urban township, Yangon, Myanmar: Implication for entomological surveillance","volume":"9","author":"SH Aung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref011","article-title":"Control methods forAedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti","author":"P Weeratunga","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014361.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.4236\/cus.2015.32007","article-title":"Resettling displaced residents from regularised informal settlements in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania: challenges faced by house owners","volume":"3","author":"D Magembe-Mushi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr Urban Stud"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04640-6","article-title":"Aedes larval bionomics and implications for dengue control in the paradigmatic Jaffna peninsula, northern Sri Lanka","volume":"14","author":"SN Surendran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-017-0316-0","article-title":"Habitat productivity and pyrethroid susceptibility status of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"6","author":"L Mathias","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-021-00395-z","article-title":"Aedes aegypti abundance, larval indices and risk for dengue virus transmission in Kinondoni district, Tanzania","volume":"50","author":"BL Ngingo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trop Med Health"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0014361.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007278","article-title":"Knowledge, attitudes and bite prevention practices and estimation of productivity of vector breeding sites using a Habitat Suitability Score (HSS) among households with confirmed dengue in the 2014 outbreak in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"14","author":"D Msellemu","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105398","article-title":"Remote sensing for risk mapping of Aedes aegypti infestations: Is this a practical task?","volume":"205","author":"C Lorenz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-1973-3","article-title":"Using low-cost drones to map malaria vector habitats","volume":"10","author":"A Hardy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014361.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1588","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjaa078","article-title":"Evaluation of unmanned aerial vehicles and neural networks for integrated mosquito management of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae)","volume":"57","author":"E Case","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007105","article-title":"High-accuracy detection of malaria vector larval habitats using drone-based multispectral imagery","volume":"13","author":"G Carrasco-Escobar","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0652-5","article-title":"Mapping hotspots of malaria transmission from pre-existing hydrology, geology and geomorphology data in the pre-elimination context of Zanzibar, United Republic of Tanzania","volume":"8","author":"A Hardy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014361.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14020317","article-title":"Improved use of drone imagery for malaria vector control through technology-assisted digitizing (TAD)","volume":"14","author":"A Hardy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03759-2","article-title":"The application of drones for mosquito larval habitat identification in rural environments: a practical approach for malaria control?","volume":"20","author":"MC Stanton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04713-0","article-title":"Cost and quality of operational larviciding using drones and smartphone technology","volume":"22","author":"A Hardy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3220244","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/3220244","article-title":"Technical Workflow Development for Integrating Drone Surveys and Entomological Sampling to Characterise Aquatic Larval Habitats of Anopheles funestus in Agricultural Landscapes in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire","volume":"2021","author":"I Byrne","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Environ Public Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0014361.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.3390\/insects12080663","article-title":"Field effectiveness of drones to identify potential Aedes aegypti breeding sites in household environments from Tapachula, a dengue-endemic city in Southern Mexico","volume":"12","author":"KM Valdez-Delgado","year":"2021","journal-title":"Insects"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0014361.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2775","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15112775","article-title":"Mapping malaria vector habitats in West Africa: drone imagery and deep learning analysis for targeted vector surveillance","volume":"15","author":"F Trujillano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Remote Sens (Basel)"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0014361.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.3390\/drones6070180","article-title":"Drones for area-wide larval source management of malaria mosquitoes","volume":"6","author":"W Mukabana","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drones"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0014361.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.3390\/drones7090581","article-title":"Mapping the urban environments of Aedes aegypti using drone technology","volume":"7","author":"KM Valdez-Delgado","year":"2023","journal-title":"Drones"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2021.101692","article-title":"Automatic detection of potential mosquito breeding sites from aerial images acquired by unmanned aerial vehicles","volume":"90","author":"DT Bravo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput Environ Urban Syst"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18227","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-67914-w","article-title":"High-resolution mapping of urban Aedes aegypti immature abundance through breeding site detection based on satellite and street view imagery","volume":"14","author":"S Knoblauch","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0014361.ref032","article-title":"A dengue outbreak in a rural community in Northern Coastal Ecuador: an analysis using unmanned aerial vehicle mapping","volume":"15","author":"GO Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0014361.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007555","article-title":"Large scale detailed mapping of dengue vector breeding sites using street view images","volume":"13","author":"P Haddawy","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014361.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009122","article-title":"Added-value of mosquito vector breeding sites from street view images in the risk mapping of dengue incidence in Thailand","volume":"15","author":"M Su Yin","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref035","unstructured":"Tanzania Population and Housing Census. 2022. https:\/\/microdata.nbs.go.tz\/index.php\/catalog\/45"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0014361.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2005.07.004","article-title":"The regulatory framework, unplanned development and urban poverty: findings from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"23","author":"JM Lusugga Kironde","year":"2006","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0197-3975(03)00076-6","article-title":"Land use dynamics in peri-urban areas and their implications on the urban growth and form: the case of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"29","author":"WJ Kombe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Habitat Int"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014361.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1177\/0975425319859175","article-title":"City Profile: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"10","author":"G Todd","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ Urban ASIA"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2025.105995","article-title":"On participatory urban planning in contexts of limited institutional capacity: An analysis of Kigamboni detailed framework and guideline 2019\u20132039 in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"162","author":"J Mottelson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref040","first-page":"2024","volume-title":"Dar es Salaam: City Report","author":"WJ Kombe","year":"2024"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014361.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1007\/s10901-020-09792-y","article-title":"Self-builder landlordism: exploring the supply and production of private rental housing in Dar es Salaam and Mwanza","volume":"36","author":"MH Andreasen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Hous Built Environ"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-007-9183-5","article-title":"The prevention and control of HIV\/AIDS, TB and Vector-borne diseases in informal settlements: challenges, opportunities and insights","volume":"84","author":"AM David","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Urban Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1080\/19463138.2023.2167821","article-title":"Governance challenges of regularisation of informal settlements in peri-urban Tanzania: perspectives from local stakeholders","volume":"15","author":"S Nuhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Urban Sustain Dev"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014361.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2205.151462","article-title":"Clinical, virologic, and epidemiologic characteristics of dengue outbreak, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 2014","volume":"22","author":"F Vairo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1080\/20477724.2021.1905302","article-title":"Circulation of dengue serotype 1 viruses during the 2019 outbreak in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"115","author":"GO Mwanyika","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathog Glob Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014361.ref046","article-title":"Global expansion and redistribution of Aedes-borne virus transmission risk with climate change","volume":"13","author":"SJ Ryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004313","article-title":"The risk of dengue virus transmission in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania during an epidemic period of 2014","volume":"10","author":"LE Mboera","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-024-10109-5","article-title":"Dengue virus transmission during non-outbreak period in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania: a cross-sectional survey","volume":"24","author":"U-K Mustafa","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2024.107270","article-title":"Seroprevalence and molecular analysis of yellow fever virus in mosquitoes at Namanga and Mutukula borders in Tanzania","volume":"150","author":"RK Kakulu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0014361.ref050","first-page":"1662","article-title":"Seroprevalence of dengue and chikungunya virus infections in children living in Sub-Saharan Africa: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"N Kayange","year":"2023","journal-title":"Children (Basel)"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0014361.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2024-016589","article-title":"Seroprevalence of seven arboviruses of public health importance in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"ST Bangoura","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-06549-y","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Dengue and Chikungunya antibodies among blood donors in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar, Tanzania: a cross-sectional study","volume":"21","author":"HS Shauri","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-021-06867-6","article-title":"Emerging epidemics: is the Zanzibar healthcare system ready to detect and respond to mosquito-borne viral diseases?","volume":"21","author":"F Saleh","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Health Serv Res"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014361.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.4081\/gh.2009.220","article-title":"Urban agriculture and Anopheles habitats in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"3","author":"S Dongus","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geospat Health"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref055","unstructured":"OpenStreetMap contributors. Planet dump. 2017. Available from: https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-7-20","article-title":"A tool box for operational mosquito larval control: preliminary results and early lessons from the Urban Malaria Control Programme in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"7","author":"U Fillinger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ronneberger O, Fischer P, Brox T. U-Net: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentation. In: International Conference on Medical Image Computing and Computer-assisted Intervention (MICCAI). 2015. pp. 234\u2013241.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24574-4_28"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-45468-4","volume-title":"Deep Learning: Foundations and Concepts","author":"CM Bishop","year":"2024"},{"issue":"7553","key":"pntd.0014361.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14539","article-title":"Deep learning","volume":"521","author":"Y LeCun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1038\/s42949-024-00188-3","article-title":"How will ai transform urban observing, sensing, imaging, and mapping?","volume":"4","author":"Q Weng","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Urban Sustain"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He K, Zhang X, Ren S, Sun J. Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition. In: Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR); 2016. pp. 770\u20138.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.90"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/s44287-024-00116-8","article-title":"High-resolution sensors and deep learning models for tree resource monitoring","volume":"2","author":"M Brandt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Rev Electr Eng"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref063","unstructured":"Loshchilov I, Hutter F. Decoupled Weight Decay Regularization. In: International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR). 2019."},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref064","unstructured":"Elkan C. The foundations of cost-sensitive learning. In: International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI). 2001. pp. 973\u20138."},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014361.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1007\/s11063-018-09977-1","article-title":"Learning from imbalanced data sets with weighted cross-entropy function","volume":"50","author":"YS Aurelio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neural Process Lett"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.srs.2025.100306","article-title":"Drone imagery for roof detection, classification, and segmentation to support mosquito-borne disease risk assessment: The Nacala-Roof-Material dataset","volume":"12","author":"VB Guthula","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Remote Sens"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref067","article-title":"Land pattern of highly urbanizing cities: change in built-up area, population density and spatial development of the sprawling Dar es Salaam City","volume":"12","author":"I Msuya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Urban ASIA"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0014361.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.2149\/tmh.2015-16","article-title":"Identification of essential containers for aedes larval breeding to control dengue in Dhaka, Bangladesh","volume":"43","author":"F Ferdousi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trop Med Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0014361.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762007005000056","article-title":"Variation in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) container productivity in a slum and a suburban district of Rio de Janeiro during dry and wet seasons","volume":"102","author":"R Maciel-de-Freitas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-3920-y","article-title":"Habitat characteristics and insecticide susceptibility of Aedes aegypti in the Ifakara area, south-eastern Tanzania","volume":"13","author":"NF Kahamba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0014361.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjy010","article-title":"Seasonal Distribution and Container Preference Ratio of the Dengue Fever Vector (Aedes aegypti, Diptera: Culicidae) in Rawalpindi, Pakistan","volume":"55","author":"MU Mukhtar","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21787","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-05408-z","article-title":"Longitudinal surveillance of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) in urban coastal Kenya: population dynamics, blood feeding frequency and dengue virus infection rates","volume":"15","author":"J Osalla","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2022.102360","article-title":"Community acceptability of dengue fever surveillance using unmanned aerial vehicles: a cross-sectional study in Malaysia, Mexico, and Turkey","volume":"49","author":"E Annan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Travel Med Infect Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014361.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-022-05580-5","article-title":"The use of drones for mosquito surveillance and control","volume":"15","author":"G Carrasco-Escobar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-4-4","article-title":"Habitat characterization and spatial distribution of Anopheles sp. mosquito larvae in Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) during an extended dry period","volume":"4","author":"MA Sattler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014361.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.244","article-title":"Short report: proximity to mosquito breeding sites as a risk factor for clinical malaria episodes in an urban cohort of Ugandan children","volume":"69","author":"SG Staedke","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0014361.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010199","article-title":"Larval source reduction with a purpose: designing and evaluating a household- and school-based intervention in coastal Kenya","volume":"16","author":"JE Forsyth","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014361.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0005107","article-title":"Microbial larvicide application by a large-scale, community-based program reduces malaria infection prevalence in urban Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"4","author":"Y Geissb\u00fchler","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-6-37","article-title":"Participatory mapping of target areas to enable operational larval source management to suppress malaria vector mosquitoes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"6","author":"S Dongus","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int J Health Geogr"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0014361.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1179\/2047773212Y.0000000057","article-title":"Community-centred eco-bio-social approach to control dengue vectors: an intervention study from Myanmar","volume":"106","author":"KT Wai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pathog Glob Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0014361.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071638","article-title":"Impact of community-based larviciding on the prevalence of malaria infection in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"8","author":"M Maheu-Giroux","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2004.71.103","article-title":"Integrated urban malaria control: a case study in dar es salaam, Tanzania","volume":"71","author":"M Caldas de Castro","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref083","article-title":"Evidence map of strategies for preventing and controlling Aedes aegypti infestation and related viral infections","volume":"49","author":"AF Mendes-Sousa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev Panam Salud Publica"},{"key":"pntd.0014361.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1080\/20477724.2025.2507681","article-title":"UAV-based aerial imaging and path optimization to combat mosquito-borne diseases","volume":"119","author":"H Bapireddygari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pathog Glob Health"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014361","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000}}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014361","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T18:06:36Z","timestamp":1780337196000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014361"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Felix","family":"Hol","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,26]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,26]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014361","relation":{},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,26]]}}}