{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T18:50:36Z","timestamp":1791226236850,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791158400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["315982\/Z\/24\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["315982\/Z\/24\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosntds.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Negl Trop Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lyssaviruses cause rabies in mammals, a viral encephalomyelitis that is almost always fatal once clinical symptoms develop and can be transmitted to humans. Given this high fatality rate, strict biosafety measures are essential during laboratory handling of potentially infectious materials. This review critically assesses current biosafety practices in rabies diagnostic and research laboratories by examining principal risk factors, transmission pathways, and the effectiveness of existing preventive measures. We conducted a comprehensive review of the literature on biosafety risks associated with handling rabies virus and related lyssaviruses, including the use of personal protective equipment, sample handling procedures, and chemical and physical methods for virus inactivation. Particular attention was given to documented cases of laboratory-acquired rabies and their implications for laboratory safety. Although laboratory-acquired infections remain rare, their occurrence highlights important gaps in current biosafety practices. The effectiveness of disinfection and inactivation methods varies widely, especially in resource-limited settings, and key diagnostic procedures, such as the direct fluorescent antibody test, require validation under biosafety constraints. Significant knowledge gaps remain regarding infectious dose, the effectiveness of decontamination methods, and diagnostic standardisation. Strengthening evidence-based biosafety protocols and validating inactivation methods are essential to ensure safer rabies diagnostics and to support effective rabies control, particularly in low-resource settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014757","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T17:52:27Z","timestamp":1791222747000},"page":"e0014757","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Biosafety of rabies virus and related lyssaviruses: Risks, precautions, and knowledge gaps in diagnostic and research laboratories"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6576-726X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Stuart D.","family":"Blacksell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mahidol University","place":["Bangkok, Thailand"],"department":["Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine"]},{"name":"University of Oxford","place":["Oxford, United Kingdom"],"department":["Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khanh Kim","family":"Le","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mahidol University","place":["Bangkok, Thailand"],"department":["Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paola","family":"De Benedictis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Food and Agriculture Organization\/National Reference Centre for Rabies and World Organisation for Animal Health Reference Laboratory for Rabies","place":["Legnaro, Padua, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Morgane","family":"Gourlaouen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)","place":["Rome, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014757.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1089\/apb.2022.0040","article-title":"The biosafety research road map: the search for evidence to support practices in human and veterinary laboratories","volume":"28","author":"SD Blacksell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl Biosaf"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014757.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17091","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.91","article-title":"Rabies","volume":"3","author":"AR Fooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Prim"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0014757.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(02)00287-6","article-title":"Rabies re-examined","volume":"2","author":"CE Rupprecht","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref004","author":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref005","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2018"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref006"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref007"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2017.11.007","article-title":"The lyssavirus host-specificity conundrum-rabies virus-the exception not the rule","volume":"28","author":"DA Marston","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Opin Virol"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref009"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref010","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2018"},{"issue":"12","key":"pntd.0014757.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1590","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001068","article-title":"Isolation, antigenicity and immunogenicity of Lleida bat lyssavirus","volume":"99","author":"AC Banyard","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Gen Virol"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0014757.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.3390\/v11100892","article-title":"Current rabies vaccines do not confer protective immunity against divergent lyssaviruses circulating in Europe","volume":"11","author":"JE Echevarr\u00eda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref013","volume-title":"Laboratory biosafety manual, fourth edition Geneva","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2020"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0014757.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/0264-410X(88)90107-7","article-title":"Efficacy of rabies vaccines against Duvenhage virus isolated from European house bats (Eptesicus serotinus), classic rabies and rabies-related viruses","volume":"6","author":"M Fekadu","year":"1988","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0014757.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/MRA.00621-23","article-title":"A rabies-related lyssavirus from a Nycticeinops schlieffeni bat with neurological signs, South Africa","volume":"12","author":"N Viljoen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol Resour Announc"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref016","author":"ABSA International"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.03.013","article-title":"The history of rabies in the Western Hemisphere","volume":"146","author":"A Velasco-Villa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014757.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009845","article-title":"Comparative pathogenesis of different phylogroup I bat lyssaviruses in a standardized mouse model","volume":"16","author":"A Klein","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0014757.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.3390\/v13102064","article-title":"Spillover of West Caucasian Bat Lyssavirus (WCBV) in a domestic cat and westward expansion in the palearctic region","volume":"13","author":"S Leopardi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2005.10.005","article-title":"Natural and experimental infection of sheep with European bat lyssavirus type-1 of Danish bat origin","volume":"134","author":"K Tj\u00f8rneh\u00f8j","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Comp Pathol"},{"issue":"7","key":"pntd.0014757.ref021","article-title":"Fatal human rabies due to Duvenhage virus from a bat in Kenya: failure of treatment with coma-induction, ketamine, and antiviral drugs","volume":"3","author":"P-PAM van Thiel","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fitd.2024.1303359","article-title":"Eliminating invisible deaths: the woeful state of global rabies data and its impact on progress towards 2030 sustainable development goals for neglected tropical diseases","volume":"5","author":"C Swedberg","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014757.ref023","first-page":"360","article-title":"Re-evaluating the burden of rabies in Africa and Asia","volume":"83","author":"DL Knobel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0014757.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003709","article-title":"Estimating the global burden of endemic canine rabies","volume":"9","author":"K Hampson","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014757.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003786","article-title":"Correction: estimating the global burden of endemic canine rabies","volume":"9","author":"K Hampson","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147543","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1147543","article-title":"Evaluation of country infrastructure as an indirect measure of dog-mediated human rabies deaths","volume":"10","author":"SC Bonaparte","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2022.10.046","article-title":"Global burden of rabies in 204 countries and territories, from 1990 to 2019: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"126","author":"H Gan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014757.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-100-5-728","article-title":"Human rabies in the United States, 1960 to 1979: epidemiology, diagnosis, and prevention","volume":"100","author":"LJ Anderson","year":"1984","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0014757.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199101243240401","article-title":"Unexplained rabies in three immigrants in the United States. A virologic investigation","volume":"324","author":"JS Smith","year":"1991","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref030","article-title":"A case of human rabies with a long incubation period in Wuhan","volume":"23","author":"M Shengli","year":"2020","journal-title":"IDCases"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014757.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1993.tb03282.x","article-title":"Polymerase chain reaction and other laboratory techniques in the diagnosis of long incubation rabies in Australia","volume":"70","author":"KA McColl","year":"1993","journal-title":"Aust Vet J"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2005.05.004","article-title":"Difference in neuropathogenetic mechanisms in human furious and paralytic rabies","volume":"238","author":"E Mitrabhakdi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0014757.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.15.11.1023","article-title":"Human rabies encephalitis. A study of forty-nine fatal cases with a review of the literature","volume":"15","author":"JR Dupont","year":"1965","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014757.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(13)70038-3","article-title":"Human rabies: neuropathogenesis, diagnosis, and management","volume":"12","author":"T Hemachudha","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014757.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(76)90037-7","article-title":"The clinical picture of rabies in man","volume":"70","author":"DA Warrell","year":"1976","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"9413","key":"pntd.0014757.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)15792-9","article-title":"Rabies and other lyssavirus diseases","volume":"363","author":"MJ Warrell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref037"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0014757.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30302-4","article-title":"New global strategic plan to eliminate dog-mediated rabies by 2030","volume":"6","author":"R Minghui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref039"},{"issue":"13","key":"pntd.0014757.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.129.13.291","article-title":"Retro-orbital route for brain specimen collection for rabies diagnosis","volume":"129","author":"JA Hirose","year":"1991","journal-title":"Vet Rec"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref041","article-title":"Field postmortem rabies rapid immunochromatographic diagnostic test for resource-limited settings with further molecular applications","volume":"160","author":"S Mauti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Vis Exp"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref042"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref043","author":"Government of Canada","year":"2011"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref044","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2024"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref045"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014757.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002216","article-title":"Incidence of rabies in humans and domestic animals and people\u2019s awareness in North Gondar Zone, Ethiopia","volume":"7","author":"WT Jemberu","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014757.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1177\/096368979500400507","article-title":"Infectious disease transmission through cell, tissue, and organ transplantation: reducing the risk through donor selection","volume":"4","author":"T Eastlund","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cell Transplant"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-29979-7.00001-5","article-title":"Chapter 9 - Human disease","volume-title":"Rabies","author":"AC Jackson","year":"2025","edition":"5"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0014757.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa043018","article-title":"Transmission of rabies virus from an organ donor to four transplant recipients","volume":"352","author":"A Srinivasan","year":"2005","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0014757.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.62.6.873","article-title":"Rabies encephalomyelitis: clinical, neuroradiological, and pathological findings in 4 transplant recipients","volume":"62","author":"EC Burton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0014757.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2208.151993","article-title":"Probable rabies virus transmission through organ transplantation, China, 2015","volume":"22","author":"H Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014757.ref052","first-page":"355","article-title":"Rabies acquired through kidney transplantation in a child: a case report","volume":"15","author":"B Saeed","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp Clin Transplant"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014757.ref053","article-title":"Furious rabies after an atypical exposure","volume":"6","author":"HFL Wertheim","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0014757.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1631\/jzus.B1500109","article-title":"A case report on indirect transmission of human rabies","volume":"16","author":"J Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Zhejiang Univ Sci B"},{"issue":"15","key":"pntd.0014757.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2016.02.065","article-title":"Rabies transmission risks during peripartum: two cases and a review of the literature","volume":"34","author":"CT Agu\u00e8mon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"issue":"11","key":"pntd.0014757.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s11908-016-0540-y","article-title":"Human rabies: a 2016 update","volume":"18","author":"AC Jackson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr Infect Dis Rep"},{"issue":"9","key":"pntd.0014757.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1086\/586745","article-title":"Bat rabies in the United States and Canada from 1950 through 2007: human cases with and without bat contact","volume":"46","author":"G De Serres","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"18","key":"pntd.0014757.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7118a2","article-title":"Use of a modified preexposure prophylaxis vaccination schedule to prevent human rabies: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices - United States, 2022","volume":"71","author":"AK Rao","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref059"},{"issue":"9951","key":"pntd.0014757.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)62707-5","article-title":"Current status of rabies and prospects for elimination","volume":"384","author":"AR Fooks","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0014757.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1804.111553","article-title":"Ikoma lyssavirus, highly divergent novel lyssavirus in an African civet","volume":"18","author":"DA Marston","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"10","key":"pntd.0014757.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1973.03230100043011","article-title":"Airborne rabies transmission in a laboratory worker","volume":"226","author":"WG Winkler","year":"1973","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref063","author":"World Health Organization","year":"1977"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0014757.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007799","article-title":"Comparison of intra- and inter-host genetic diversity in rabies virus during experimental cross-species transmission","volume":"15","author":"EM Bonnaud","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2013.12.029","article-title":"Lyssavirus infection: \u201clow dose, multiple exposure\u201d in the mouse model","volume":"181","author":"AC Banyard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virus Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"pntd.0014757.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2018.11","article-title":"The spread and evolution of rabies virus: conquering new frontiers","volume":"16","author":"CR Fisher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014757.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.01914-24","article-title":"Immunological findings of West Caucasian bat virus in an accidental host","volume":"99","author":"M Castellan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014757.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002682","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo isolation and characterization of Duvenhage virus","volume":"8","author":"P Koraka","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref069"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref070"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref071"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref072"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014757.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1590\/S0037-86821999000100004","article-title":"Influence of canine brain decomposition on laboratory diagnosis of rabies","volume":"32","author":"A Albas","year":"1999","journal-title":"Rev Soc Bras Med Trop"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014757.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(02)00041-X","article-title":"Rabies virus detection by RT-PCR in decomposed naturally infected brains","volume":"87","author":"D David","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014757.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1220","DOI":"10.4102\/jsava.v86i1.1220","article-title":"Utility of forensic detection of rabies virus in decomposed exhumed dog carcasses","volume":"86","author":"W Markotter","year":"2015","journal-title":"J S Afr Vet Assoc"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2014.06.024","article-title":"Effects of carcase decomposition on rabies virus infectivity and detection","volume":"207","author":"LM McElhinney","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Virol Methods"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref077","author":"Australian Government Department of Health Disability and Ageing","year":"2025"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0014757.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad098","article-title":"Fatal human rabies infection with suspected host-mediated failure of post-exposure prophylaxis following a recognized zoonotic exposure-Minnesota, 2021","volume":"77","author":"SM Holzbauer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pntd.0014757.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2003.09.002","article-title":"In vitro inactivation of the rabies virus by ascorbic acid","volume":"8","author":"SN Madhusudana","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0014757.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.12.041","article-title":"Inactivation of rabies virus by hydrogen peroxide","volume":"34","author":"AA Abd-Elghaffar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2017.02.002","article-title":"Inactivation of rabies virus","volume":"243","author":"G Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Virol Methods"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014757.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.16.2.253-256.1982","article-title":"Inactivation of rabies virus in reagents used for the fluorescent rabies antibody test","volume":"16","author":"LA White","year":"1982","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014757.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.12.5.676-678.1980","article-title":"Inactivation of rabies diagnostic reagents by gamma radiation","volume":"12","author":"WC Gamble","year":"1980","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2016.03.017","article-title":"Disinfection protocols for necropsy equipment in rabies laboratories: Safety of personnel and diagnostic outcome","volume":"234","author":"R Aiello","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Virol Methods"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref085"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2016.04.005","article-title":"Rabies direct fluorescent antibody test does not inactivate rabies or eastern equine encephalitis viruses","volume":"234","author":"JA Jarvis","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Virol Methods"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2018.01.009","article-title":"Evaluation of the inactivation of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus by several common methods","volume":"254","author":"EI Patterson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Virol Methods"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0014757.ref088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.3390\/v15081693","article-title":"Virus inactivation by formaldehyde and common lysis buffers","volume":"15","author":"U Seeburg","year":"2023","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"issue":"3","key":"pntd.0014757.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2005.05.003","article-title":"Validation of the inactivant binary ethylenimine for inactivating rabies virus for veterinary rabies vaccine production","volume":"33","author":"SK Mondal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref090","author":"Government of Canada","year":"2016"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref091","volume-title":"Guideline for disinfection and sterilization in healthcare facilities","author":"Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee","year":"2008"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref092","volume-title":"Decontamination and waste management, (Laboratory biosafety manual, fourth edition and associated monographs)","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2020"},{"key":"pntd.0014757.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2006.11.011","article-title":"Use of filter paper (FTA) technology for sampling, recovery and molecular characterisation of rabies viruses","volume":"140","author":"E Picard-Meyer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Virol Methods"},{"issue":"8","key":"pntd.0014757.ref094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.00080-25","article-title":"Validation and multi-site deployment of a lyophilized qRT-PCR reagent for the molecular diagnosis of avian influenza and rabies in Sub-Saharan African regions","volume":"63","author":"P Drzewniokov\u00e1","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0014757.ref095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004776","article-title":"Evaluation of six commercially available rapid immunochromatographic tests for the diagnosis of rabies in brain material","volume":"10","author":"E Eggerbauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0014757.ref096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2023.104029","article-title":"The persistence of time: the lifespan of Bacillus anthracis spores in environmental reservoirs","volume":"174","author":"ZR Barandongo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res Microbiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pntd.0014757.ref097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-7915.13267","article-title":"Evaluating the long-term persistence of Bacillus spores on common surfaces","volume":"11","author":"KS Enger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microb Biotechnol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pntd.0014757.ref098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jim.2900391","article-title":"Production methods for rabies vaccine","volume":"18","author":"O P\u00e9rez","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pntd.0014757.ref099","article-title":"Treat the \u201cUntreatable\u201d by a photothermal agent: triggering heat and immunological responses for rabies virus inactivation","volume":"10","author":"Y Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv Sci (Weinh)"}],"container-title":["PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014757","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T17:52:37Z","timestamp":1791222757000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014757"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Anne","family":"Conan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CIRAD","place":["ZIMBABWE"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pntd.0014757","relation":{},"ISSN":["1935-2735"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1935-2735","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]}}}