{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T20:45:28Z","timestamp":1790282728243,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]],"date-time":"2014-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1407715200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0104515","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]],"date-time":"2014-08-11T14:20:34Z","timestamp":1407766834000},"page":"e104515","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":85,"title":["Rapid Decline in HCV Incidence among People Who Inject Drugs Associated with National Scale-Up in Coverage of a Combination of Harm Reduction Interventions"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Norah E.","family":"Palmateer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Avril","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David J.","family":"Goldberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alison","family":"Munro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Celia","family":"Aitken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samantha J.","family":"Shepherd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georgina","family":"McAllister","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rory","family":"Gunson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sharon J.","family":"Hutchinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2011.03765.x","article-title":"Meta-Analysis of Hepatitis C Seroconversion in Relation to Shared Syringes and Drug Preparation Equipment","volume":"107","author":"ER Pouget","year":"2011","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12117","article-title":"Risk of transmission associated with sharing drug injecting paraphernalia: analysis of recent hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection using cross-sectional survey data","volume":"21","author":"N Palmateer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Viral Hepat"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2009.02888.x","article-title":"Evidence for the effectiveness of sterile injecting equipment provision in preventing hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus transmission among injecting drug users: a review of reviews","volume":"105","author":"N Palmateer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2013.07.001","article-title":"Interventions to prevent HIV and Hepatitis C in people who inject drugs: A review of reviews to assess evidence of effectiveness","volume":"25","author":"GJ Macarthur","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int J Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2007.01912.x","article-title":"Full participation in harm reduction programmes is associated with decreased risk for human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus: evidence from the Amsterdam Cohort Studies among drug users","volume":"102","author":"C Van Den Berg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2012.07.006","article-title":"Association between harm reduction intervention uptake and recent hepatitis C infection among people who inject drugs attending sites that provide sterile injecting equipment in Scotland","volume":"23","author":"EJ Allen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Drug Policy"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1978","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2011.03515.x","article-title":"The impact of needle and syringe provision and opiate substitution therapy on the incidence of hepatitis C virus in injecting drug users: pooling of UK evidence","volume":"106","author":"KM Turner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1996","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2012.04011.x","article-title":"Commentary on Vickerman et al. (2012): Reducing hepatitis C virus among injection drug users through harm reduction programs","volume":"107","author":"CM Smith-Spangler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1984","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2012.03932.x","article-title":"Can needle and syringe programmes and opiate substitution therapy achieve substantial reductions in hepatitis C virus prevalence? Model projections for different epidemic settings","volume":"107","author":"P Vickerman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-10-721","article-title":"The provision of non-needle\/syringe drug injecting paraphernalia in the primary prevention of HCV among IDU: a systematic review","volume":"10","author":"M Gillies","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref11","unstructured":"Scottish Government (2010 May) Guidelines for services providing injecting equipment: Best practice recommendations for commissioners and injecting equipment provision (IEP) services in Scotland. Edinburgh: Scottish Government. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"http:\/\/www.scotland.gov.uk\/Publications\/2010\/03\/29165055\/13\" xlink:type=\"simple\">http:\/\/www.scotland.gov.uk\/Publications\/2010\/03\/29165055\/13<\/ext-link>."},{"key":"ref12","unstructured":"Scottish Government (2008) The Road to Recovery: A New Approach to Tackling Scotland&apos;s Drug Problem. Edinburgh: Scottish Government. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"http:\/\/www.scotland.gov.uk\/Resource\/Doc\/224480\/0060586.pdf\" xlink:type=\"simple\">http:\/\/www.scotland.gov.uk\/Resource\/Doc\/224480\/0060586.pdf<\/ext-link>."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.94.3.400","article-title":"Evidence-based public health: moving beyond randomized trials","volume":"94","author":"CG Victora","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.328.7446.966","article-title":"Making public health interventions more evidence based","volume":"328","author":"B Kirkwood","year":"2004","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref15","unstructured":"Medical Research Council (2009) Developing and evaluating complex interventions: New guidance."},{"key":"ref16","first-page":"979","article-title":"Developing and evaluating complex interventions: the new Medical Research Council guidance","volume":"337","author":"P Craig","year":"2008","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3156.1997.d01-188.x","article-title":"Issues in the design and interpretation of studies to evaluate the impact of community-based interventions","volume":"2","author":"BR Kirkwood","year":"1997","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2012.05.041","article-title":"Uptake of paraphernalia from injecting equipment provision services and its association with sharing of paraphernalia among injecting drug users in Scotland","volume":"126","author":"E Aspinall","year":"2012","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"ref19","unstructured":"ISD (2013) Injecting equipment provision in Scotland survey 2011\/12. Edinburgh: Information Services Division, National Services Scotland. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"http:\/\/www.isdscotland.org\/Health-Topics\/Drugs-and-Alcohol-Misuse\/Publications\/2013-06-25\/2013-06-25-Injecting-Equipment-Provision-2011-12-Report.pdf\" xlink:type=\"simple\">http:\/\/www.isdscotland.org\/Health-Topics\/Drugs-and-Alcohol-Misuse\/Publications\/2013-06-25\/2013-06-25-Injecting-Equipment-Provision-2011-12-Report.pdf<\/ext-link>."},{"key":"ref20","unstructured":"ISD (2012) Drug Misuse Statistics Scotland 2011. Edinburgh: Information Services Division, National Services Scotland. Available: <ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"http:\/\/www.isdscotland.org\/Health-Topics\/Drugs-and-Alcohol-Misuse\/Publications\/2012-02-28\/2012-02-28-dmss2011-report.pdf\" xlink:type=\"simple\">http:\/\/www.isdscotland.org\/Health-Topics\/Drugs-and-Alcohol-Misuse\/Publications\/2012-02-28\/2012-02-28-dmss2011-report.pdf<\/ext-link>."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.10463","article-title":"Evaluation of a modified commercial assay in detecting antibody to hepatitis C virus in oral fluids and dried blood spots","volume":"71","author":"A Judd","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Med Virol"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2012.02.004","article-title":"Detection of hepatitis C virus RNA in dried blood spots","volume":"54","author":"S Bennett","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Clin Virol"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2893.2010.01297.x","article-title":"Measuring the incidence, prevalence and genetic relatedness of hepatitis C infections among a community recruited sample of injecting drug users, using dried blood spots","volume":"18","author":"VD Hope","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Viral Hepat"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01229-07","article-title":"Testing strategy to identify cases of acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and to project HCV incidence rates","volume":"46","author":"K Page-Shafer","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Overstall A, King R, Bird SM, Hutchinson SJ, Hay G (2013) Incomplete contingency tables with censored cells with application to estimating the number of people who inject drugs in Scotland. Stat Med In press.","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.6047"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2893.2005.00651.x","article-title":"Spontaneous viral clearance following acute hepatitis C infection: a systematic review of longitudinal studies","volume":"13","author":"JM Micallef","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Viral Hepat"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1017\/S095026880900212X","article-title":"Incidence of hepatitis C in drug injectors: the role of homelessness, opiate substitution treatment, equipment sharing, and community size","volume":"137","author":"N Craine","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.38286.841227.7C","article-title":"Incidence of hepatitis C virus and HIV among new injecting drug users in London: prospective cohort study","volume":"330","author":"A Judd","year":"2005","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2012.301206","article-title":"Reduction in HCV Incidence Among Injection Drug Users Attending Needle and Syringe Programs in Australia: A Linkage Study","volume":"103","author":"J Iversen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-006-9089-7","article-title":"Major decline of hepatitis C virus incidence rate over two decades in a cohort of drug users","volume":"22","author":"CH van den Berg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur J Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.1111\/add.12125","article-title":"Decline in incidence of HIV and hepatitis C virus infection among injecting drug users in Amsterdam; evidence for harm reduction?","volume":"108","author":"AS de Vos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2010.08.029","article-title":"Can antiviral therapy for hepatitis C reduce the prevalence of HCV among injecting drug user populations? A modeling analysis of its prevention utility","volume":"54","author":"NK Martin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Hepatol"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S39","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit296","article-title":"Combination interventions to prevent HCV transmission among people who inject drugs: modelling the impact of antiviral treatment, needle and syringe programmes, and opiate substitution therapy","volume":"57","author":"NK Martin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1038\/75063","article-title":"Cellular immune responses persist and humoral responses decrease two decades after recovery from a single-source outbreak of hepatitis C","volume":"6","author":"A Takaki","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199012000-00016","article-title":"Loss of antibodies against hepatitis C virus in HIV-seropositive intravenous drug users","volume":"4","author":"E Chamot","year":"1990","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref36","unstructured":"Health Protection Scotland, University of the West of Scotland (2008) The Needle Exchange Surveillance Initiative (NESI): Prevalence of HCV, HIV and injecting risk behaviours among injecting drug users attending needle exchanges in Scotland, 2007."}],"container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0104515","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,13]],"date-time":"2019-08-13T16:09:59Z","timestamp":1565712599000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0104515"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Wenzhe","family":"Ho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0104515","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,11]]}}}