{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T03:26:28Z","timestamp":1790825188644,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,15]],"date-time":"2018-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1534291200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Konstanz Young Scholar Fund"},{"name":"vivo international"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004049","name":"KAAD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004049","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0201362","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,15]],"date-time":"2018-08-15T17:29:12Z","timestamp":1534354152000},"page":"e0201362","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["Reducing violence by teachers using the preventative intervention Interaction Competencies with Children for Teachers (ICC-T): A cluster randomized controlled trial at public secondary schools in Tanzania"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Mabula","family":"Nkuba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katharin","family":"Hermenau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katharina","family":"Goessmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9272-0512","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Tobias","family":"Hecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","unstructured":"Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children [GIEACPC]. Corporal punishment of children: Summaries of prevalence and attitudinal research in the last 10 years\u2014Africa [Internet]. 2016. http:\/\/endcorporalpunishment.org\/research\/prevalence-research\/<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref2","unstructured":"Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children [GIEACPC]. Ending legalised violence against children [Internet]. 2015. http:\/\/www.endcorporalpunishment.org\/assets\/pdfs\/reports-global\/Global-report-2015.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref3","unstructured":"UNICEF. Hidden in plain sight\u2014A statistical analysis of violence against children [Internet]. New York: United Nations Children\u2019s Fund; 2014. http:\/\/files.unicef.org\/publications\/files\/Hidden_in_plain_sight_statistical_analysis_EN_3_Sept_2014.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref4","unstructured":"Antonowicz L. Too often in silence: A report on school-based violence in West and Central Africa [Internet]. UNICEF, Plan West Africa, Save the Children Sweden West Africa and ActionAid; 2010. https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/wcaro\/documents_publications_4271.html<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref5","first-page":"1","article-title":"Prevalence, societal causes, and trends in corporal punishment by parents in world perspective","volume":"31","author":"MA Straus","year":"2010","journal-title":"Law Contemp Probl"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2379-3988.2016.tb00086.x","article-title":"Corporal punishment in U.S. public schools: Prevalence, disparities in use, and status in state and federal policy","volume":"30","author":"ET Gershoff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Soc Policy Rep"},{"key":"ref7","unstructured":"Global Advocacy Team Plan International. Plan\u2019s Learn Without Fear campaign: Third progress [Internet]. Dukes Court: Plan Limited; 2012. 38 p. https:\/\/plan-international.org\/publications\/learn-without-fear-third-progress-report#download-options<\/ext-link>"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2008.05.011","article-title":"Experiences of violence and deficits in academic achievement among urban primary school children in Jamaica","volume":"33","author":"H Baker-Henningham","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Abus Negl"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e129","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-2007","article-title":"School violence, mental health, and educational performance in Uganda","volume":"133","author":"KM Devries","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.26719\/2013.19.4.333","article-title":"Physical abuse in basic-education schools in Aden governorate, Yemen: a cross-sectional study","volume":"19","author":"AS Ba-Saddik","year":"2013","journal-title":"East Mediterr Health J"},{"key":"ref11","article-title":"Springer Briefs in Psychology Series: Advances in Child and Family Policy and Practice","author":"ET Gershoff","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-016-0828-3","article-title":"Harsh discipline relates to internalizing problems and cognitive functioning: Findings from a cross-sectional study with school children in Tanzania","volume":"16","author":"T Hecker","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref13","unstructured":"UN General Assembly. Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November 1989 [Internet]. United Nations\u2019 Treaty Series, vol. 1577. 1989. 3 p. http:\/\/www.ohchr.org\/EN\/ProfessionalInterest\/Pages\/CRC.aspx<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref14","unstructured":"United Nations. Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development [Internet]. 2015. https:\/\/sustainabledevelopment.un.org\/content\/documents\/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref15","unstructured":"Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children [GIEACPC]. Prohibiting all corporal punishment of children in Africa: an essential step towards fulfilling the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [Internet]. 2017. 8 p. http:\/\/www.endcorporalpunishment.org\/assets\/pdfs\/briefings-regional\/DAC-briefing-2017-EN.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.5152\/npa.2016.11323","article-title":"Exposure of Students to Emotional and Physical Violence in the School Environment","volume":"53","author":"S Aras","year":"2016","journal-title":"Noro Psikiyatr Ars"},{"key":"ref17","first-page":"48","article-title":"Corporal punishment in schools: Longitudinal evidence from Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam","author":"M. J. Ogando Portela","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref18","unstructured":"Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children [GIEACPC]. Prohibiting all corporal punishment of children in Africa: progress and delay [Internet]. 2015. https:\/\/www.crin.org\/sites\/default\/files\/progress_and_delay_march_2015_singles.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s11159-010-9169-5","article-title":"Corporal punishment in Tanzania\u2019s schools","volume":"56","author":"S Feinstein","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int Rev Educ"},{"key":"ref20","unstructured":"Parkes J, Heslop J. Stop Violence Against Girls in School:A cross-country analysis of baseline research from Ghana, Kenya and Mozambique [Internet]. ActionAid International; 2013. 1\u201380 p. http:\/\/www.ungei.org\/resources\/files\/svags_-_a_cross_country_analysis_of_baseline_research_from_ghana_kenya_and_mozambique.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref21","unstructured":"United Republic of Tanzania. The Law of the Child Act [Internet]. 2009. 79 p. http:\/\/mcdgc.go.tz\/data\/Law_of_the_Child_Act_2009.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref22","unstructured":"Research and Analysis Working Group United Republic of Tanzania. Tanzanian children\u2019s perceptions of education and their role in society: Views of the children 2007 [Internet]. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Research on Poverty Alleviation (REPOA); 2007. http:\/\/www.repoa.or.tz\/documents\/Views_of_the_Children_2007.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref23","unstructured":"United Republic of Tanzania. The National Education Act, 1978 [Internet]. 1978. 31 p. http:\/\/www.ilo.org\/dyn\/natlex\/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=94089<\/ext-link>"},{"key":"ref24","unstructured":"Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children [GIEACPC]. Corporal punishment of children in the United Republic of Tanzania [Internet]. 2016. http:\/\/www.endcorporalpunishment.org\/progress\/country-reports\/united-republic-of-tanzania.html<\/ext-link>"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2013.11.007","article-title":"Corporal punishment and children\u2019s externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children","volume":"38","author":"T Hecker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Child Abus Negl"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.10.019","article-title":"Teachers\u2019 stress intensifies violent disciplining in Tanzanian secondary schools","volume":"76","author":"T Hecker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.5296\/jse.v3i4.4167","article-title":"Disciplinary networks in secondary schools: Policy dimensions and children\u2019s rights in Tanzania","volume":"3","author":"RS Yaghambe","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Stud Educ"},{"key":"ref28","article-title":"Improving interaction competencies with children\u2014A pilot feasibility study to reduce school corporal punishment","author":"E Kaltenbach","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Aggress Maltreatment, Trauma"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.5430\/wje.v6n1p50","article-title":"Challenges Facing Teachers\u2019 Attempts to Enhance Learners\u2019 Discipline in Tanzania\u2019s Secondary Schools","volume":"6","author":"LM Semali","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0b013e318135448a","article-title":"Physical punishment, culture, and rights: current issues for professionals","volume":"29","author":"J Durrant","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Dev Behav Pediatr"},{"issue":"12","key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.101314","article-title":"Physical punishment of children: Lessons from 20 years of research","volume":"184","author":"J Durrant","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can Med Assoc J"},{"issue":"8","key":"ref32","first-page":"242","article-title":"Teachers\u2019 perceptions on corporal punishment as a method of discipline in elementary schools","volume":"2","author":"S Kilimci","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Int Soc Res"},{"key":"ref33","first-page":"224","article-title":"What children say: Results of comparative research on the physical and emotional punishment of children in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 2005","author":"H Beazley","year":"2006"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1002\/car.1121","article-title":"Why are Kenyan teachers still using corporal punishment eight years after a ban on corporal punishment?","volume":"19","author":"M Mweru","year":"2010","journal-title":"Child Abus Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/1753-2000-5-29","article-title":"Childhood adversity, mental ill-health and aggressive behavior in an African orphanage: Changes in response to trauma-focused therapy and the implementation of a new instructional system","volume":"5","author":"K Hermenau","year":"2011","journal-title":"Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health"},{"key":"ref36","unstructured":"Bennell P, Akyeampong K. Teacher Motivation in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia [Internet]. London, UK: Department for International Development; 2007. https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/media\/57a08be640f0b652dd000f9a\/ResearchingtheIssuesNo71.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/03057920500033530","article-title":"Teacher accountability in context: Tanzanian primary school teachers\u2019 perceptions of local community and education administration","volume":"35","author":"AM Barrett","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comp A J Comp Int Educ"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/S1054-139X(03)00042-9","article-title":"Corporal punishment in schools: Position paper of the Society for Adolescent Medicine","volume":"32","author":"DE Greydanus","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Adolesc Heal"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref39","first-page":"127","article-title":"Secondary School Teachers\u2019 Perception of Corporal Punishment: A Case Study in India","volume":"88","author":"R Cheruvalath","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Educ Strateg Issues Ideas"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1080\/03055698.2014.955739","article-title":"Some possible effects of behaviour management training on teacher confidence and competence: evidence from a study of primary school teachers in Hong Kong","volume":"41","author":"P Cooper","year":"2015","journal-title":"Educ Stud"},{"issue":"19","key":"ref41","first-page":"160","article-title":"Is it not now? School counselors\u2019 training in Tanzania secondary schools","volume":"6","author":"M Nkuba","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Educ Pract"},{"key":"ref42","unstructured":"Covell K, Becker J. Five Years on: A global update on violence against children, report for Against, the NGO advisory council for follow-up to the UN Secretary-General\u2019s Study on violence Children. [Internet]. New York: NGO Advisory Council for Follow-up to the UN Study on Violence against Childre; 2011. https:\/\/www.crin.org\/en\/docs\/Five_Years_On.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1080\/13548506.2016.1271955","article-title":"School corporal punishment in global perspective: prevalence, outcomes, and efforts at intervention","volume":"22","author":"ET Gershoff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol Health Med"},{"key":"ref44","unstructured":"Pinheiro PS. World Report on Violence Against Children [Internet]. United Nations Secretary-General\u2019s Study on Violence against Children. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Publishing Services; 2006. 327 p. https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/violencestudy\/I.%20World%20Report%20on%20Violence%20against%20Children.pdf<\/ext-link>"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3310\/phr01010","article-title":"Systematic review of the effects of schools and school environment interventions on health: evidence mapping and synthesis","volume":"1","author":"C Bonell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Public Heal Res"},{"issue":"7","key":"ref46","first-page":"e378","article-title":"The Good School Toolkit for reducing physical violence from school staff to primary school students: A cluster-randomised controlled trial in Uganda","volume":"3","author":"KM Devries","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Heal. Devries et al. Open access article published under the terms of CC BY"},{"key":"ref47","article-title":"Caring for your school-age child: Ages 5 to 12","author":"EL Schoor","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00937","article-title":"Improving care quality and preventing maltreatment in institutional care\u2014a feasibility study with caregivers","volume":"6","author":"K Hermenau","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1002\/imhj.21440","article-title":"Maltreatment and mental health in institutional care-comparing early and late institutionalized children in tanzania","volume":"35","author":"K Hermenau","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infant Ment Health J"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2018.01.002","article-title":"Violence and maltreatment in Tanzanian families\u2014Findings from a nationally representative sample of secondary school students and their parents","volume":"77","author":"M Nkuba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl"},{"key":"ref51","article-title":"Out of the darkness Contemporary research perspectives on family violence","author":"MA Straus","year":"1997"},{"issue":"6","key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2012.04.005","article-title":"Parental agreement of reporting parent to child aggression using the Conflict Tactics Scales","volume":"36","author":"SJ Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-2134(97)00174-9","article-title":"Identification of child maltreatment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents","volume":"22","author":"MA Straus","year":"1998","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2009.02.002","article-title":"How we design feasibility studies","volume":"36","author":"DJ Bowen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1027\/1614-2241.1.3.86","article-title":"Sufficient sample sizes for multilevel modeling","volume":"1","author":"CJM Maas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Methodology"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref56","first-page":"45","article-title":"A Monte Carlo sample size study: How many countries are needed for accurate multilevel SEM?","volume":"3","author":"B Meuleman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Surv Res Methods"},{"key":"ref57","article-title":"Using Multivariate Statistics","author":"BG Tabachnick","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref58","article-title":"Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics","author":"A Field","year":"2012"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03193146","article-title":"G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences","volume":"39","author":"F Faul","year":"2007","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0201362","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,29]],"date-time":"2022-08-29T10:34:56Z","timestamp":1661769296000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0201362"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Michael L.","family":"Goodman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,15]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,15]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0201362","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,15]]}}}