{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T07:24:30Z","timestamp":1788852270243,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,31]],"date-time":"2018-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1540944000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0206623","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,31]],"date-time":"2018-10-31T17:54:26Z","timestamp":1541008466000},"page":"e0206623","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["Prevalence, determinants and knowledge of antibacterial self-medication: A cross sectional study in North-eastern Tanzania"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1241-6997","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Pius G.","family":"Horumpende","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sophia H.","family":"Said","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Festo S.","family":"Mazuguni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magreth L.","family":"Antony","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Happiness H.","family":"Kumburu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tolbert B.","family":"Sonda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles E.","family":"Mwanziva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen E.","family":"Mshana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Blandina T.","family":"Mmbaga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Debora C.","family":"Kajeguka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jaffu O.","family":"Chilongola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2135","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.281452","article-title":"Excessive Antibiotic Prescribing for Sore Throat and Acute Bronchitis Remains Common","volume":"310","author":"BM Kuehn","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"Suppl 2","key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S71","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciu392","article-title":"The future of antibiotics and resistance: a tribute to a career of leadership by John Bartlett","volume":"59","author":"B Spellberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1177\/2042098614554919","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem","volume":"5","author":"C Llor","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ther Adv drug Saf"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-14-13","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of antibiotic consumption on antibiotic resistance","volume":"14","author":"BG Bell","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref5","first-page":"145","article-title":"The antimicrobial resistance crisis: causes, consequences, and management","volume":"2","author":"CA Michael","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front public Heal"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.328.7451.1297","article-title":"Presence of bacteriuria caused by trimethoprim resistant bacteria in patients prescribed antibiotics: multilevel model with practice and individual patient data","volume":"328","author":"PT Donnan","year":"2004","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.39274.647465.BE","article-title":"Effect of antibiotic prescribing on antibiotic resistance in individual children in primary care: prospective cohort study","volume":"335","author":"A Chung","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/34.2.239","article-title":"Effect of antibiotic therapy on the antibiotic resistance of faecal Escherichia coli in patients attending general practitioners","volume":"34","author":"N London","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Antimicrob Chemother"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.39307.642963.80","article-title":"Prescribing antibiotics in primary care","volume":"335","author":"C. Del Mar","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit137","article-title":"Mass distribution of azithromycin for trachoma control is associated with increased risk of azithromycin-resistant streptococcus pneumoniae carriage in young children 6 months after treatment","volume":"56","author":"CL Coles","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0804.010312","article-title":"Antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance: a population perspective","volume":"8","author":"M Lipsitch","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2010.08.005","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in the environment: a link to the clinic?","volume":"13","author":"GD Wright","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr Opin Microbiol"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2008.05.006","article-title":"Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in water environments","volume":"19","author":"F Baquero","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr Opin Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.03.036","article-title":"Large-Scale Metagenomic-Based Study of Antibiotic Resistance in the Environment","volume":"24","author":"J Nesme","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3435","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1222743110","article-title":"Diverse and abundant antibiotic resistance genes in Chinese swine farms","volume":"110","author":"Y-G Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2385","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.283828","article-title":"IDSA: Better, Faster Diagnostics for Infectious Diseases Needed to Curb Overtreatment, Antibiotic Resistance","volume":"310","author":"BM Kuehn","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i63","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkm161","article-title":"The public\u2019s attitudes to and compliance with antibiotics","volume":"60","author":"CAM McNulty","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Antimicrob Chemother"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3156.1997.d01-213.x","article-title":"Availability of antibiotics as over-the-counter drugs in pharmacies: a threat to public health in Vietnam","volume":"2","author":"D Van Duong","year":"1997","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Heal"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5649","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1503141112","article-title":"Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals","volume":"112","author":"TP Van Boeckel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"ref20","first-page":"64","article-title":"Self medication amongst general outpatients in a nigerian community hospital","volume":"5","author":"CO Omolase","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann Ibadan Postgrad Med"},{"key":"ref21","first-page":"243","article-title":"Use of medicinal plants and pharmaceuticals by indigenous communities in the Bolivian Andes and Amazon","volume":"82","author":"I Vandebroek","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1370\/afm.999","article-title":"Availability of antibiotics for purchase without a prescription on the internet","volume":"7","author":"AG Mainous","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann Fam Med"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-13-252","article-title":"Self-medication with anti-malarials is a common practice in rural communities of Kilosa district in Tanzania despite the reported decline of malaria","volume":"13","author":"B Chipwaza","year":"2014","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(99)00428-1","article-title":"Children and medicines: self-treatment of common illnesses among Luo schoolchildren in western Kenya","volume":"50","author":"PW Geissler","year":"2000","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"ref25","first-page":"277","article-title":"The antibiotic resistance crisis: part 1: causes and threats","volume":"40","author":"CL Ventola","year":"2015","journal-title":"P T. MediMedia"},{"key":"ref26","unstructured":"Ministry of Planning E and E. Tanzania Population and Housing Census. 2012."},{"key":"ref27","article-title":"PEOPLE\u2019S KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND PRACTICES ABOUT SELF MEDICATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN ILALA MUNICIPALITY, DAR ES SALAAM","author":"G Levson","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref28","article-title":"SAMPLING TECHNIQUES &amp; DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE IN APPLIED STATISTICS RESEARCH: AN OVERVIEW","author":"AS Singh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Econ Commer Manag United Kingdom"},{"key":"ref29","first-page":"55","article-title":"Prevalence and factors associated with self-medication: the Bambu\u00ed health survey","volume":"36","author":"AI de Loyola Filho","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rev Saude Publica"},{"key":"ref30","article-title":"Over-the-counter suboptimal dispensing of antibiotics in Uganda","author":"JK Mukonzo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Multidiscip Healthc"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1186\/2050-6511-15-74","article-title":"Self-medication with antibiotics among non-medical university students of Karachi: a cross-sectional study","volume":"15","author":"SJ Shah","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Pharmacol Toxicol"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2017.01.004","article-title":"Self-medication and antibiotic resistance: Crisis, current challenges, and prevention","volume":"24","author":"IA Rather","year":"2017","journal-title":"Saudi J Biol Sci"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-12-339","article-title":"Self-medication in university students from the city of Rio Grande, Brazil","volume":"12","author":"MG Corr\u00eaa da Silva","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1370\/afm.999","article-title":"Availability of antibiotics for purchase without a prescription on the internet","volume":"7","author":"AG Mainous","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann Fam Med"},{"key":"ref35","article-title":"Self-medication with antibiotics for the treatment of menstrual symptoms in southwest Nigeria: a cross-sectional study","author":"AR Sapkota","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref36","first-page":"722","article-title":"Self-medication with antibiotics by a population in northern Israel","volume":"7","author":"R Raz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Isr Med Assoc J"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1177\/1059840509349723","article-title":"Management of Primary Dysmenorrhea by School Adolescents in ILE-IFE, Nigeria","volume":"26","author":"AA Ogunfowokan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Sch Nurs"},{"key":"ref38","first-page":"393","article-title":"Drug shop regulation and malaria treatment in Tanzania\u2014why do shops break the rules, and does it matter? Health Policy Plan","volume":"22","author":"C Goodman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Europe PMC Funders"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2003.022103","article-title":"Management of infectious diarrhoea","volume":"53","author":"AC Casburn-Jones","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1874","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2009.02.072","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of acute or persistent diarrhea","volume":"136","author":"SW Pawlowski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref41","first-page":"930","article-title":"Prevalence and Predictors of Self-Medication with Antibiotics in Al Wazarat Health Center, Riyadh City, KSA","volume":"88","author":"A Al Rasheed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed Res Int"},{"key":"ref42","first-page":"2454","article-title":"Self-Medication with Antibiotics Prior To Seeking Treatment among Adult Patients Attending Outpatient Department at Gatundu Sub-County Hospital, Kiambu County, Kenya","volume":"2","author":"C Kiragu Ngigi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Imp J Interdiscip Res"},{"key":"ref43","article-title":"Factors predicting home storage of medicines in Northern Uganda","author":"M Ocan","journal-title":"Factors predicting home storage of medicines in Northern Uganda"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/103874","article-title":"Resistance to Cotrimoxazole and Other Antimicrobials among Isolates from HIV\/AIDS and Non-HIV\/AIDS Patients at Bugando Medical Centre, Mwanza, Tanzania","volume":"2015","author":"KJ Marwa","year":"2015","journal-title":"AIDS Res Treat"},{"key":"ref45","first-page":"282","article-title":"Public knowledge, attitude and perception of over the counter medicines: case study in Dar es Salaam region, Tanzania","volume":"7","author":"M Justin-Temu","year":"2010","journal-title":"East Afr J Public Health"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-0711-12-28","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in human and animal pathogens in Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique and Tanzania: an urgent need of a sustainable surveillance system","volume":"12","author":"SE Mshana","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1097(03)00306-9","article-title":"Simple and reliable multiplex PCR assay for detection of blaTEM, blaSHVand blaOXA-1genes in Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"223","author":"K Colom","year":"2003","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol Lett"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.5897\/AJMR2016.8282","article-title":"A systematic review of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonella data obtained from Tanzanian healthcare settings (2004\u20132014)","volume":"11","author":"GO Mwanyika","year":"2017","journal-title":"African Journal of Microbiology Research"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-016-0870-9","article-title":"Comparison of antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli obtained from drinking water sources in northern Tanzania: a cross-sectional study","volume":"16","author":"B Lyimo","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Microbiol"},{"key":"ref50","first-page":"3519","article-title":"Self-Medication Practices with Antibiotics among Tertiary Level Students in Accra, Ghana","volume":"9","author":"ES Donkor","year":"2012","journal-title":"A Cross-"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.466","article-title":"Self-medication with antibiotics by the community of Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates","volume":"3","author":"A Abasaeed","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Infect Dev Ctries"},{"key":"ref52","article-title":"Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance in Agroecosystems: State of the Science","author":"J Williams-Nguyen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Environ Qual"},{"key":"ref53","article-title":"Self-medication with antibiotics among non-medical university students of Karachi: a cross-sectional study","author":"SJ Shah","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Pharmacol Toxicol"},{"key":"ref54","first-page":"211","article-title":"Measurement of adult antimicrobial drug use in tertiary care hospital using defined daily dose and days of therapy","volume":"76","author":"D Bansal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Indian J Pharm Sci"},{"key":"ref55","first-page":"303","article-title":"Over-the-counter suboptimal dispensing of antibiotics in Uganda","volume":"6","author":"JK Mukonzo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Multidiscip Healthc"},{"key":"ref56","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-015-0075-2","article-title":"What roles do accredited drug dispensing outlets in Tanzania play in facilitating access to antimicrobials? Results of a multi-method analysis","volume":"4","author":"JC Chalker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antimicrob Resist Infect Control"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/2052-3211-7-11","article-title":"Engaging the private sector to improve antimicrobial use in the community: experience from accredited drug dispensing outlets in Tanzania","volume":"7","author":"R Valimba","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Pharm Policy Pract"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s40545-015-0044-4","article-title":"Accrediting retail drug shops to strengthen Tanzania\u2019s public health system: an ADDO case study","volume":"8","author":"E Rutta","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Pharm Policy Pract"},{"key":"ref60","article-title":"The Accredited Drug Dispensing Outlet (ADDO) Model in Tanzania","author":"JH Liana"},{"key":"ref61","unstructured":"Accredited Drug Dispensing Outlets in Tanzania Strategies for Enhancing Access to Medicines Program Final Report Accredited Drug Dispensing Outlets in Tanzania: Strategies for Enhancing Access to Medicines Program Final Report About SEAM."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(99)00380-9","article-title":"Social factors influencing the acquisition of antibiotics without prescription in Kerala State, south India","volume":"50","author":"RD Saradamma","year":"2000","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med. Elsevier Limited"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1007\/s11096-007-9124-0","article-title":"Utilization of antimicrobial agents with and without prescription by out-patients in selected pharmacies in South-eastern Nigeria","volume":"29","author":"CO Esimone","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pharm World Sci"},{"key":"ref64","first-page":"214","article-title":"Self-medication amongst university students of Karachi: prevalence, knowledge and attitudes","volume":"58","author":"SN Zafar","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Pak Med Assoc"},{"key":"ref65","article-title":"A study of the prevalence of self-medication practice among university students in southwestern Nigeria","author":"KP Osemene","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trop J Pharm Res"},{"key":"ref66","first-page":"205","article-title":"Antibiotic self-medication in university students from Trujillo, Peru","volume":"18","author":"M N\u00fa\u00f1ez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med Univ"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkq541","article-title":"Antibiotic use: knowledge and perceptions in two university hospitals","volume":"66","author":"J-C Lucet","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Antimicrob Chemother"},{"key":"ref68","article-title":"Prior knowledge, older age, and higher allowance are risk factors for self-medication with antibiotics among University students in Southern China","author":"H Pan","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.3923\/ijp.2010.48.52","article-title":"Antibiotics self-medication among southern iranian university students","volume":"6","author":"S Sarahroodi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Pharmacol"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0206623","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,9]],"date-time":"2020-05-09T04:56:27Z","timestamp":1589000187000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0206623"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Andrew C.","family":"Singer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,31]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,31]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0206623","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,31]]}}}