{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T03:21:12Z","timestamp":1788837672886,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]],"date-time":"2021-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\"><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonosis. Leptospirosis incidence (LI) in Sri Lanka is high. Infected animals pass leptospires to the environment with their urine. Leprospires' survival in the environment to infect a new host depends on meteorological factors. El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) modulate the weather in Sri Lanka.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec002\"><jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title><jats:p>The determination of interrelationship between the LI in the Hambantota District, and local meteorological parameters, ENSO and IOD.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec003\"><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We acquired notified leptospirosis cases in the Hambantota District and population data. We calculated weekly leptospirosis incidences for 2008 to 2017.Weather data from two weather stations was obtained, averaged and converted into weekly data. We plotted time series graphs and observed the correlation between seven aggregated weather parameters and LI. We estimated cross-correlations between those weather parameters and LI. As our principal analysis we determined correlation between LI and seven local weather parameters, Nino 3.4, Nino4 and Dipole Mode Index (DMI) indices using wavelet analysis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec004\"><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our wavelet analysis results showed troughs of minimum, maximum, mean temperatures, soil temperature, the evaporation rate, the duration of sunshine were followed by peaks in LI and peaks of rainfall followed by peaks of LI, all after lag periods. Our time series graphs and cross-correlation determination results are generally in agreement with these results. However there was no significant correlation between rainfall and LI in the cross-correlation analysis. There were peaks of LI following both peaks and troughs of DMI. There was no clear correlation between both Nino indices and LI.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec005\" sec-type=\"conclusions\"><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This may be the first long-term study demonstrating soil temperature, evaporation rate and IOD are correlating with LI. The correlation pattern of LI with temperature parameters differs from similar past studies and we explain the reasons. We propose ways to control high LI we observed after periods of weather favorable for transmission of leptospirosis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0245366","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]],"date-time":"2021-01-22T22:29:51Z","timestamp":1611354591000},"page":"e0245366","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["The interrelationship between meteorological parameters and leptospirosis incidence in Hambantota district, Sri Lanka 2008\u20132017 and practical implications"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9133-2307","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"N. D. B.","family":"Ehelepola","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kusalika","family":"Ariyaratne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"D. S.","family":"Dissanayake","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0245366.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2019.105183","article-title":"Leptospirosis: Increasing importance in developing countries","volume":"201","author":"ZM Soo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta tropica"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref002","volume-title":"Human leptospirosis: guidance for diagnosis, surveillance and control","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2003"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref003","unstructured":"Epidemiology Unit.Ministry of Health- Sri Lanka. National Guidelines on Management of Leptospirosis. Ministry of Health, Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine-Sri Lanka;2016."},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0245366.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003843","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003843","article-title":"Environmental and behavioural determinants of leptospirosis transmission: a systematic review","volume":"9","author":"MA Mwachui","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop DisSep 17"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0245366.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003898","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003898","article-title":"Global morbidity and mortality of leptospirosis: a systematic review","volume":"9","author":"F Costa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Plos negl trop dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553283","DOI":"10.1080\/16549716.2018.1553283","article-title":"The correlation between local weather and leptospirosis incidence in Kandy district, Sri Lanka from 2006 to 2015","volume":"12","author":"ND Ehelepola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Global health action"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0245366.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268811001014","article-title":"Spatial epidemiology of suspected clinical leptospirosis in Sri Lanka","volume":"140","author":"C Robertson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Epidemiology & InfectionApr"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0245366.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12549","article-title":"Spatial epidemiological approaches to inform leptospirosis surveillance and control: A systematic review and critical appraisal of methods","volume":"66","author":"PW Dhewantara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Zoonoses and public health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0245366.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.4038\/sljid.v7i2.8155","article-title":"Leptospirosis in Sri Lanka","volume":"7","author":"J.N. Warnasekara","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sri Lankan Journal of Infectious Diseases"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0245366.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001","article-title":"Leptospirosis","volume":"14","author":"P. N. Levett","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clinical microbiology reviews"},{"issue":"suppl 2","key":"pone.0245366.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.109-1240669","article-title":"Climate variability and change in the United States: potential impacts on vector-and rodent-borne diseases","volume":"109","author":"DJ Gubler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environmental health perspectives"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0245366.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0008437","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008437","article-title":"Understanding leptospirosis eco-epidemiology by environmental DNA metabarcoding of irrigation water from two agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka","volume":"14","author":"CD Gamage","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goarant, C., Trueba, G., Bierque, E., Thibeaux, R., Davis, B. and De la Pe\u00f1a Moctezuma. Leptospira and Leptospirosis. In: J.B. Rose and B. Jim\u00e9nez-Cisneros, (eds) Global Water Pathogen Project. http:\/\/www.waterpathogens.org (A. Pruden, N. Ashbolt and J. Miller (eds) Part 3 Bacteria) 2019. http:\/\/www.waterpathogens.org\/book\/leptospira-and-leptospriosis Michigan State University, E. Lansing, MI, UNESCO. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14321\/waterpathogens.26.","DOI":"10.14321\/waterpathogens.26"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref014","volume-title":"Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","author":"MW Fall","year":"2015"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1400-1","article-title":"Determination of Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Javanica and Leptospira interrogans serovar Bataviae as the persistent Leptospira serovars circulating in the urban rat populations in Peninsular Malaysia","volume":"9","author":"D Benacer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasites & vectors"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0245366.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0310.2009.01654.x","article-title":"Temperature and cloud cover, but not predator urine, affect winter foraging of mice","volume":"115","author":"JL Orrock","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ethology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0245366.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-019-01448-w","article-title":"A Case\u2013Control Study of Environmental and Occupational Risks of Leptospirosis in Sri Lanka","volume":"16","author":"MH Sch\u00f8nning","year":"2019","journal-title":"EcoHealth"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0245366.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1715","DOI":"10.1023\/B:BIOC.0000029331.92656.de","article-title":"Biodiversity associated with an irrigated rice agro-ecosystem in Sri Lanka","volume":"13","author":"CN Bambaradeniya","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biodiversity & ConservationAug 1"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0245366.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.3390\/cli2040242","article-title":"Rainfall distributions in Sri Lanka in time and space: an analysis based on daily rainfall data","volume":"2","author":"TP Burt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Climate"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0245366.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1029\/2002GL015639","article-title":"Modulation of Sri Lankan maha rainfall by the Indian Ocean dipole","volume":"30","author":"L Zubair","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geophysical Research Letters"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.1514","article-title":"Predictability of Sri Lankan rainfall based on ENSO","volume":"28","author":"L Zubair","year":"2008","journal-title":"International Journal of Climatology: A Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0245366.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-008-0993-2","article-title":"Wavelet analysis of ecological time series","volume":"156","author":"B Cazelles","year":"2008","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-015-0075-8","article-title":"A study of the correlation between dengue and weather in Kandy City, Sri Lanka (2003\u20132012) and lessons learned","volume":"4","author":"ND Ehelepola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infectious diseases of poverty"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref024","unstructured":"Grinsted A, Moore JC, Jevrejeva S. Application of the cross wavelet transform and wavelet coherence to geophysical time series. https:\/\/core.ac.uk\/download\/pdf\/52753743.pdf."},{"issue":"D21","key":"pone.0245366.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JD003417","article-title":"Influence of the Arctic Oscillation and El Ni\u00f1o\u2010Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on ice conditions in the Baltic Sea: The wavelet approach","volume":"108","author":"S Jevrejeva","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1998)079<0061:APGTWA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A practical guide to wavelet analysis","volume":"79","author":"C Torrence","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bulletin of the American Meteorological society"},{"issue":"19","key":"pone.0245366.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01190-17","article-title":"Critical knowledge gaps in our understanding of environmental cycling and transmission of Leptospira spp","volume":"83","author":"V Barragan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Applied and environmental microbiology"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref028","article-title":"Detection of pathogenic Leptospira in the environment and its association with antagonistic Pseudomonas spp. and rainy season","author":"KV Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"issue":"13","key":"pone.0245366.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00507-18","article-title":"Quantification of Leptospira interrogans survival in soil and water microcosms","volume":"84","author":"A Casanovas-Massana","year":"2018","journal-title":"Applied and environmental microbiology"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-45059-8_6","volume-title":"InLeptospira and leptospirosis","author":"WA Ellis","year":"2015"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-17.1.39","article-title":"The Norway rat as a selective chronic carrier of Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae","volume":"17","author":"AB Thiermann","year":"1981","journal-title":"Journal of wildlife diseases"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2626","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002626","article-title":"Regional differences of leptospirosis in Sri Lanka: observations from a flood-associated outbreak in 2011","volume":"8","author":"SB Agampodi","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2010.04.016","article-title":"Chronic renal failure in Sri Lanka caused by elevated dietary cadmium: Trojan horse of the green revolution","volume":"198","author":"JM Bandara","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicology Letters"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref034","unstructured":"Director General of Sri Lanka Disaster Management Center, Asian Conference on Disaster Reduction, June 13\u201315, 2011, Cinnamon Grand Hotel Colombo Sri Lanka. Presentation \u2018Recent Floods in Sri Lanka\u2019 by the Director General of Sri Lanka Disaster Management Center. https:\/\/www.adrc.asia\/acdr\/2011colombo\/documents\/01_Recent%20Floods%20in%20Sri%20Lanka%20-%2010.06.2011.pdf."},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref035","unstructured":"Epidemiology Unit, Ministry of Health- Sri Lanka. New Challenges in Controlling Leptospirosis. Weekly Epidemiological Report Vol38,No.08. 2011\u2014Epidemiology Unit, Ministry of Health- Sri Lanka."},{"issue":"7237","key":"pone.0245366.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.320.7237.768","article-title":"Human error: models and management","volume":"320","author":"J Reason","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bmj"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref037","unstructured":"Epidemiology Unit, Ministry of Health- Sri Lanka. New Challenges in Controlling Leptospirosis. Weekly Epidemiological Report Vol38,No.08. 2011. Epidemiology Unit, Ministry of Health- Sri Lanka."},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0245366.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apjtm.2016.03.009","article-title":"Etiological agents causing leptospirosis in Sri Lanka: A review","volume":"9","author":"C Naotunna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Asian Pacific journal of tropical medicine"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/9579086","article-title":"An analysis of a dengue outbreak at a large hospital and Epidemiological evidence for nosocomial dengue","volume":"2018","author":"ND Ehelepola","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of tropical medicine"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref040","article-title":"Unusual, neurological and severe dengue manifestations during the outbreak in Sri Lanka, 2017","volume":"104304","author":"MM Tun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Virology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12014","article-title":"Carrier Status of Leptospirosis Among Cattle in Sri Lanka: A Zoonotic Threat to Public Health","volume":"61","author":"CD Gamage","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transboundary and emerging diseasesFeb"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0245366.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268807000052","article-title":"Changes in epidemiology of leptospirosis in 2003\u20132004, a two El Nino Southern Oscillation period, Guadeloupe archipelago, French West Indies","volume":"136","author":"CH Storck","year":"2008","journal-title":"Epidemiology & Infection"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0245366.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(03)00830-2","article-title":"Leptospirosis: a zoonotic disease of global importance","volume":"3","author":"AR Bharti","year":"2003","journal-title":"The Lancet infectious diseases"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0245366.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4857","DOI":"10.18203\/2394-6040.ijcmph20195068","article-title":"Trend of leptospirosis and its association with meteorological factors in Thrissur district, Kerala","volume":"6","author":"AK Premdas","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0245366.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20377","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0020377","article-title":"Seasonality of human leptospirosis in Reunion Island (Indian Ocean) and its association with meteorological data","volume":"6","author":"A Desvars","year":"2011","journal-title":"PloS one"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2506-6","article-title":"The influence of climatic factors on the development of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and leptospirosis during the peak season in Korea: an ecologic study","volume":"17","author":"YP Joshi","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC infectious diseases"},{"issue":"21","key":"pone.0245366.ref047","first-page":"3196","article-title":"Comparison of the effects of UV-A radiation on Leptospira interrogan serovar Bataviae, Canicola and Pomona","volume":"9","author":"S Chadsuthi","year":"2010","journal-title":"African Journal of Biotechnology"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref048","unstructured":"Wikipedia. Climate of Seoul.Statistics 2020 https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Climate_of_Seoul#cite_note-12."},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0245366.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.11702","article-title":"Impact of El Ni\u00f1o-Southern oscillation on human leptospirosis in Colombia at different spatial scales","volume":"13","author":"C Arias-Monsalve","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref050","article-title":"The Influence of La Nina on Sri Lanka Rainfall","volume":"1","author":"P.M. Jayakody","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sri Lanka Journal of Meteorology"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref051","author":"A Yapa","year":"2013","edition":"1"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0245366.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.7589\/2014-10-245","article-title":"Global patterns of Leptospira prevalence in vertebrate reservoir hosts","volume":"52","author":"EU Andersen-Ranberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of wildlife diseases"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0245366.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-020-00757-5","article-title":"Towards integrated surveillance-response systems for the prevention of future pandemics","volume":"9","author":"J Zinsstag","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infectious diseases of poverty"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref054","volume-title":"Spatial Variation of Climate Change Induced Vulnerability in Sri Lanka: An Analysis of the Components of Vulnerability at District Level","author":"R Punyawardena","year":"2013"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0245366.ref055","first-page":"46","article-title":"Effectiveness of Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Leptospirosis among Adults: A Systematic Review","volume":"3","author":"MA Abd Rahim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Malaysian Journal of Applied Sciences"},{"key":"pone.0245366.ref056","article-title":"Doxycycline Usage for Prevention of Leptospirosis among Farmers and Reasons for Failure to Use Chemoprophylaxis: A Descriptive Study from Southern Sri Lanka","author":"CL Fonseka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Tropical Medicine"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0245366.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1177\/2156587214525402","article-title":"A reevaluation of the effectiveness of homoeoprophylaxis against leptospirosis in Cuba in 2007 and 2008","volume":"19","author":"I Golden","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of evidence-based complementary & alternative medicine"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0245366","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,18]],"date-time":"2023-10-18T22:21:02Z","timestamp":1697667662000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0245366"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Ulrike Gertrud","family":"Munderloh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0245366","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]]}}}