{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T09:51:00Z","timestamp":1785232260311,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,8]],"date-time":"2021-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617840000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We consider a proposed system that would place sensors in a number of wastewater manholes in a community in order to detect genetic remnants of SARS-Cov-2 found in the excreted stool of infected persons. These sensors would continually monitor the manhole\u2019s wastewater, and whenever virus remnants are detected, transmit an alert signal. In a recent paper, we described two new algorithms, each sequentially opening and testing successive manholes for genetic remnants, each algorithm homing in on a neighborhood where the infected person or persons are located. This paper extends that work in six important ways: (1) we introduce the concept of in-manhole sensors, as these sensors will reduce the number of manholes requiring on-site testing; (2) we present a realistic tree network depicting the topology of the sewer pipeline network; (3) for simulations, we present a method to create random tree networks exhibiting key attributes of a given community; (4) using the simulations, we empirically demonstrate that the mean and median number of manholes to be opened in a search follows a well-known logarithmic function; (5) we develop procedures for determining the number of sensors to deploy; (6) we formulate the sensor location problem as an integer nonlinear optimization and develop heuristics to solve it. Our sensor-manhole system, to be implemented, would require at least three additional steps in R&amp;D: (a) an accurate, inexpensive and fast SARS-Cov-2 genetic-remnants test that can be done at the manhole; (b) design, test and manufacture of the sensors; (c) in-the-field testing and fine tuning of an implemented system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0248893","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,8]],"date-time":"2021-04-08T18:15:26Z","timestamp":1617905726000},"page":"e0248893","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Placing sensors in sewer networks: A system to pinpoint new cases of coronavirus"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6050-7263","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mehdi","family":"Nourinejad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oded","family":"Berman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2776-4900","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Richard C.","family":"Larson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0248893.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.105689","article-title":"future perspectives of wastewater-based epidemiology: monitoring infectious disease spread and resistance to the community level","volume":"139","author":"N Sims","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environment International"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref002","first-page":"2020","article-title":"how does coronavirus kill? clinicians trace a ferocious rampage through the body, from brain to toes","author":"M Wadman","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref003","first-page":"1831","article-title":"evidence for gastrointestinal infection of SARS-CoV-2. March 3, 2020","volume":"158","author":"F Xiao","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0248893.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.0c00357","article-title":"Presence of SARS-Coronavirus-2 RNA in sewage and correlation with reported COVID-19 prevalence in the early stage of the epidemic in The Netherlands","volume":"7","author":"G Medema","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0248893.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0240007","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240007","article-title":"Sampling manholes to home in on SARS-CoV-2 infections","volume":"15","author":"R Larson","year":"2020","journal-title":"PloS one"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0248893.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-020-0684-z","article-title":"Measurement of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater tracks community infection dynamics","volume":"38","author":"J Peccia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature Biotechnology"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0248893.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-020-0690-1","article-title":"Tracking COVID-19 with wastewater","volume":"38","author":"D Larsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature Biotechnology"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref008","author":"E Nadworny","year":"2020","journal-title":"Colleges turn to wastewater testing in an effort to flush out the coronavirus"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref009","article-title":"Aligning SARS-CoV-2 indicators via an epidemic model: application to hospital admissions and RNA detection in sewage sludge","author":"E Kaplan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Care Manag Sci"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref010","article-title":"the geography of home size and occupancy","author":"R Dietz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Economics & Housing Policy, National Association of Home Builders, Special Studies"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0248893.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1287\/trsc.26.3.201","article-title":"Optimal Locations for Discretionary Service Facilities","volume":"26","author":"O. Berman","year":"1992","journal-title":"Transportation Science"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0248893.ref012","article-title":"Trajectory-interception based method for electric vehicle taxi charging station problem with real taxi data","volume":"10","author":"D. Han","year":"2016","journal-title":"International Journal of Sustainable Transportation"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0248893.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1080\/1573062X.2019.1597378","article-title":"A state-of-the-art review of an optimal sensor placement for contaminant warning system in a water distribution network","volume":"15","author":"Adedoja Oluwaseye S.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Urban Water Journal"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0248893.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020030","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001210","article-title":"Topological Placement of Quality Sensors in Water-Distribution Networks without the Recourse to Hydraulic Modeling","volume":"146","author":"C. Giudicianni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref015","first-page":"x+338","volume-title":"A Series of Books in the Mathematical Sciences","author":"NP hard","year":"1979"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref016","unstructured":"Moreton, N. Sensors in the Water Industry: The Next Step to IoT Cities, Reports IDTechEx. (Sept. 8, 2020) Boston. https:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/news-releases\/sensors-in-the-water-industry-the-next-step-to-iot-cities-reports-idtechex-301125700.html."},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0248893.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04017026","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000778","article-title":"Evaluation of different formulations to optimally locate sensors in sewer systems","volume":"143","author":"B. K. Banik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0248893.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1080\/1573062X.2016.1176220","article-title":"Illicit intrusion characterization in sewer systems","volume":"14","author":"B. K. Banik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Urban water journal"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.3390\/w9110856","article-title":"Greedy Algorithms for Sensor Location in Sewer Systems","volume":"9","author":"B.K. Banik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0248893.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2166\/wpt.2006020","article-title":"Practical aspects, experiences and strategies by using UV\/VIS sensors for long-term sewer monitoring","volume":"1","author":"G. Gruber","year":"2006","journal-title":"Water Practice & Technology"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref021","unstructured":"Anne-Marie Lambert, May-June 2017. Cleaning Up Belmont\u2019s Polluted Waterways, Belmont Citizens Forum https:\/\/www.belmontcitizensforum.org\/2017\/05\/12\/cleaning-up-belmonts-polluted-waterways\/)."},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref022","unstructured":"Lexington Water and Sewer. https:\/\/www.lexingtonma.gov\/water-and-sewer 2020."},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref023","unstructured":"Johnson S. so many manholes, so little time. Concrete Construction. April 9, 2012. https:\/\/www.concreteconstruction.net\/projects\/infrastructure\/so-many-manholes-so-little-time_o"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref024","unstructured":"Massachusetts Department of Transportation, 2020. http:\/\/download.massgis.digital.mass.gov\/shapefiles\/state\/MassDOT_Roads_SHP.zip"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref025","unstructured":"Binary search algorithm. (2020). Binary search algorithm. Retrieved 2 December, 2020, from Wikipedia."},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0248893.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5845","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b01434","article-title":"Community Sewage Sensors for Monitoring Public Health","volume":"49","author":"Z. Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref027","article-title":"Paper-based devices for rapid diagnostics and testing sewage for early warning of COVID-19 outbreak","volume":"2","author":"Q. Hui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3733","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c01174","article-title":"can a paper-based device trace COVID-19 sources with wastewater-based epidemiology?","volume":"54","author":"K Mao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref029","article-title":"Israeli tech to hunt for early evidence of coronavirus in sewer systems","author":"J. Robin","year":"2020","journal-title":"The Jerusalem Post"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref030","article-title":"Real-Time Wastewater Monitoring Enables Rapid COVID-19 Outbreak Detection","author":"Karen Steward","year":"2020","journal-title":"Technology Networks"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref031","article-title":"Overflow Party","author":"Meghan Ottolini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Boston Herald"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref032","article-title":"New Law Requires Notice of Sewage Discharges","author":"Katie Lannan","year":"2021","journal-title":"The Lowell Sun"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0248893.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268801005787","article-title":"Poliovirus surveillance by examining sewage specimens. Quantitative recovery of virus after introduction into sewerage at remote upstream location","volume":"127","author":"T. Hovi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Epidemiology & Infection"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0248893.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1859","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.03575-14","article-title":"Environmental Surveillance of Poliovirus in Sewage Water around the Introduction Period for Inactivated Polio Vaccine in Japan","volume":"81","author":"T. Nakamura","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref035","article-title":"Detection of Pathogenic Viruses in Sewage Provided Early Warnings of Hepatitis A Virus and Norovirus Outbreaks","author":"M. Hellm\u00e9r","year":"2014","journal-title":"Applied and Environmental Microbiology"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1007\/s12560-013-9121-5","article-title":"GIV Noroviruses in Wastewaters and in Stool Specimens from Hospitalized Patients","volume":"5","author":"M. Muscillo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Environ Virol"},{"key":"pone.0248893.ref037","article-title":"Sewer sensors sniff out signs of bombs and drugs","author":"Paul Marks","year":"2013","journal-title":"NewScientist"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0248893","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,8]],"date-time":"2021-04-08T18:16:00Z","timestamp":1617905760000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0248893"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Gabriele","family":"Oliva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,8]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,8]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0248893","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,8]]}}}