{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T08:33:49Z","timestamp":1790843629830,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]],"date-time":"2021-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622160000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hallucinations occur along a continuum of normal functioning. Investigating the factors related to this experience in nonclinical individuals may offer important information for understanding the etiology of hallucinations in psychiatric populations. In this study we test the relationship between psychosis proneness, loneliness, and auditory hallucinations in a nonclinical sample using the White Christmas paradigm. Seventy-six undergraduate students participated in this study. We found that slightly more than half of our participants endorsed a hallucinatory experience during the White Christmas paradigm. However, we did not observe a relationship between the number of hallucinatory experiences and schizotypy, propensity to hallucinate, or loneliness. Moreover, there were no differences on these measures between individuals who reported hearing a hallucination during the White Christmas paradigm relative to those who did not. Thus, there may be other contextual factors not investigated in this study that might clarify the mechanism by which auditory hallucinations are experienced in a nonclinical population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0251753","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]],"date-time":"2021-05-28T19:52:51Z","timestamp":1622231571000},"page":"e0251753","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Psychosis proneness, loneliness, and hallucinations in nonclinical individuals"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2453-060X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sarah Hope","family":"Lincoln","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Taylor","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emma","family":"Edenbaum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jill M.","family":"Hooley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0251753.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S295","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbu011","article-title":"Studying hallucinations within the NIMH RDoC framework","volume":"40","author":"J.M. Ford","year":"2014","journal-title":"Schizophrenia Bulletin"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0251753.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-7358(01)00103-9","article-title":"The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population","volume":"21","author":"L.C. Johns","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clinical Psychology Review"},{"key":"pone.0251753.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-007-0020-z","article-title":"Auditory hallucinations in those populations that do not suffer from schizophrenia","volume":"9","author":"C. Choong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Current Psychiatry Reports"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0251753.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291717002367","article-title":"Auditory hallcuinations across the lifespan: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"48","author":"K. Maijer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychological Medicine"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0251753.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1348\/014466504X20044","article-title":"The prediction of hallucinatory predisposition in non-clinical individuals: Examining the contribution of emotion and reasoning","volume":"44","author":"P. Allen","year":"2005","journal-title":"British Journal of Clinical Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0251753.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1348\/014466500163112","article-title":"Cognitive factors in predisposition to auditory and visual hallucinations","volume":"39","author":"A. P. Morrison","year":"2000","journal-title":"Br J Clin Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0251753.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1348\/014466502760379127","article-title":"Cognitive and emotional predictors of predisposition to hallucinations in non-patients","volume":"41","author":"A.P. Morrison","year":"2002","journal-title":"British Journal of Clinical Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0251753.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7916(01)00029-5","article-title":"Another White Christmas: fantasy proneness and reports of \u2019hallucinatory experiences\u2019 in undergraduate students","volume":"32","author":"H. Merckelbach","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry"},{"issue":"889\u2013896","key":"pone.0251753.ref009","article-title":"The role of schizotypy, mental imagery, and fantasy proneness in hallucinatory reports of undergraduate students","volume":"35","author":"V. van de Ven","year":"2003","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"issue":"2\u20133","key":"pone.0251753.ref010","first-page":"271","article-title":"Emotional processing in a non-clinical psychosis-prone sample","volume":"68","author":"M. van t\u2019Wout","year":"2004","journal-title":"Schizophrenia Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0251753.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291708003814","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: Evidence for a psychosis proneness-persistence-impairment model of psychotic disorder","volume":"39","author":"J. van Os","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychological Medicine"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0251753.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2013.01.004","article-title":"Evidence of a dimensional relationship between schizotypy and schizophrenia: A systematic review","volume":"37","author":"M.T. Nelson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0251753.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2013.01.004","article-title":"Evidence of a dimensional relationship between schizotypy and schizophrenia: A systematic review","volume":"37","author":"M.T. Nelson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuroscience Biobehavioral Review"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0251753.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1111\/bjop.12048","article-title":"The effect of psychological stress and expectation on auditory perception: a signal detection analysis","volume":"105","author":"R. Hoskin","year":"2014","journal-title":"British Journal of Psychology"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0251753.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2010.12.007","article-title":"The effect of caffeine and stress on auditory hallucinations in a non-clinical sample","volume":"50","author":"S.F. Crowe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0251753.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1080\/17522439.2017.1349829","article-title":"Social isolation and psychosis-like experiences: a UK general population analysis","volume":"9","author":"S. Butter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychosis"},{"key":"pone.0251753.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.13012","article-title":"Hallucinations in patients with borderline personality disorder: Characteristics, severity, and relationship with schizotypy and loneliness","volume":"139","author":"C.W. Slotema","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica"},{"key":"pone.0251753.ref018","article-title":"Hallucinations, loneliness, and social isolation in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","author":"M. El Haj","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cognitive Neuropsychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0251753.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbx036","article-title":"Loneliness in Psychosis: A Meta-analytical Review","volume":"44","author":"B. Michalska da Rocha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Schizophr Bull"},{"key":"pone.0251753.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2019.112625","article-title":"The importance of loneliness in psychotic-like symptoms: Data from three studies","volume":"282","author":"T. P. Le","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0251753.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.39.3.472","article-title":"The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: concurrent and discriminant validity evidence","volume":"39","author":"D. Russell","year":"1980","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0251753.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2017.12.033","article-title":"The multidimensional schizotypy scale-brief: Scale development and psychometric properties","volume":"261","author":"G. M. Gross","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0251753.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/0191-8869(81)90027-1","article-title":"The measurement of hallucinatory predisposition in male and female prisoners","volume":"2","author":"G. Launay","year":"1981","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"pone.0251753.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2015.10.027","article-title":"Loneliness in psychotic disorders and its association with cognitive function and symptom profile","volume":"169","author":"J. C. Badcock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Schizophr Res"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0251753","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]],"date-time":"2021-05-28T19:53:17Z","timestamp":1622231597000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0251753"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Thomas M.","family":"Olino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0251753","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,28]]}}}