{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T15:39:30Z","timestamp":1783438770842,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]],"date-time":"2021-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n<jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>In these unpredictable times of the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, parents worldwide are affected by the stress and strain caused by the physical distancing protocols that have been put in place.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n<jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>In a two\u2010wave longitudinal survey, we investigated the levels of parental stress and symptoms of anxiety and depression in a sample of parents at two time points; during the implementation of the strictest physical distancing protocols following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic (T1, <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic> = 2,868) and three months after the discontinuation of the protocols (T2, <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic> = 1,489). Further, we investigated the relationships between parental stress and anxiety and depression relative to relationship quality and anger toward their children at the two aforementioned time points, including subgroups based on age, parental role, cultural background, relationship status, education level, number of children, employment status and pre-existing psychiatric diagnosis.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n<jats:title>Methods and findings<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Parents were asked to fill out a set of validated questionnaires on the two measurement points. Parental stress significantly decreased from T1 to T2, indicating that the cumulative stress that parents experienced during the implementation of the distancing protocols declined when the protocols were phased out. The decrease of perceived parental stress was accompanied by a significant decrease in the symptoms of both depression and anxiety among the participating parents. Symptoms meeting the clinical cut-offs for depression (23.0%) and generalized anxiety disorder (23.3%) were reported among participating parents at T1, compared to 16.8% and 13.8% at T2, respectively. The reduction in depression and anger toward their child(ren) from T1 to T2 was associated with a reduction of parental stress. Relationship quality and anger toward their child(ren) at T1 further predicted a change in the level of parental stress from T1 to T2.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec004\">\n<jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>The study underlines the negative psychological impacts of the implementation of the distancing protocols on parents\u2019 health and well-being. Uncovering the nature of how these constructs are associated with parents and families facing a social crisis such as the ongoing pandemic may contribute to the design of relevant interventions to reduce parental distress and strengthen parental coping and resilience.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0253087","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]],"date-time":"2021-06-24T17:40:12Z","timestamp":1624556412000},"page":"e0253087","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":43,"title":["Mechanisms of parental distress during and after the first COVID-19 lockdown phase: A two-wave longitudinal study"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7486-2859","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Miriam S.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nora","family":"Skjerdingstad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8335-2217","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Omid V.","family":"Ebrahimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Asle","family":"Hoffart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7190-4187","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sverre","family":"Urnes Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0253087.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000660","article-title":"Risk and resilience in family well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic.","volume":"75","author":"H Prime","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am Psychol."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2020.05.003","article-title":"Stress resilience during the coronavirus pandemic.","volume":"35","author":"CH Vinkers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1037\/tra0000592","article-title":"Traumatic stress in the age of COVID-19: A call to close critical gaps and adapt to new realities.","volume":"12","author":"D Horesh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol Trauma."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref004","article-title":"Stress and parenting during the global COVID-19 pandemic.","volume":"104699","author":"SM Brown","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcbs.2020.09.003","article-title":"Modeling suicide risk among parents during the COVID-19 pandemic: Psychological inflexibility exacerbates the impact of COVID-19 stressors on interpersonal risk factors for suicide.","volume":"18","author":"D Crasta","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Contextual Behav Sci."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2020.03.013","article-title":"Behavioral and emotional disorders in children during the COVID-19 epidemic.","volume":"221","author":"WY Jiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2020-007294","article-title":"COVID-19 and parent-child psychological well-being.","volume":"146","author":"A Gassman-Pines","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref008","first-page":"1","article-title":"Parental burnout and child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic.","volume":"23","author":"AK Griffith","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Fam Violence."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2020-016824","article-title":"Well-being of parents and children during the COVID-19 pandemic: A national survey.","volume":"146","author":"SW Patrick","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcbs.2020.07.001","article-title":"Mediators of the association between COVID-19-related stressors and parents\u2019 psychological flexibility and inflexibility: The roles of perceived sleep quality and energy.","volume":"17","author":"JS Peltz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Contextual Behav Sci"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref011","first-page":"100089","article-title":"An increasing risk of family violence during the Covid-19 pandemic: Strengthening community collaborations to save lives.","volume":"2","author":"AM Campbell","year":"2020","journal-title":"FSI Reports."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1111\/inm.12735","article-title":"Family violence and COVID\u201019: Increased vulnerability and reduced options for support.","volume":"29","author":"K Usher","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Ment Health Nurs."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/0145-2134(91)90072-L","article-title":"The role of parental stress in physically abusive families.","volume":"15","author":"EE Whipple","year":"1991","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2206.2004.00312.x","article-title":"Parental mental health: Disruption to parenting and outcomes for children.","volume":"9","author":"M. Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"Child Fam Soc Work"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.12987\/yale\/9780300103939.001.0001","volume-title":"Parenting stress.","author":"D. Deater-Deckard K","year":"2004"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1207\/s15374424jccp2104_12","article-title":"The determinants of parenting behavior.","volume":"2","author":"RR Abidin","year":"1992","journal-title":"J Clin Child Psychol."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2047","DOI":"10.1111\/jocn.15296","article-title":"The pandemic paradox: The consequences of COVID\u201019 on domestic violence.","volume":"2","author":"C Bradbury\u2010Jones","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clin Nurs."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2016.12.015","article-title":"The role of negative parental attributions in the associations between daily stressors, maltreatment history, and harsh and abusive discipline.","volume":"64","author":"M Beckerman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1037\/fam0000315","article-title":"Parenting stress mediates the association between negative affectivity and harsh parenting: A longitudinal dyadic analysis.","volume":"31","author":"Y Le","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Fam Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1352\/1944-7558-117.1.48","article-title":"Parenting stress and child behavior problems: A transactional relationship across time.","volume":"117","author":"C Neece","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Intellect Dev Disabil"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/13668259700033261","article-title":"Influence of gender, parental health, and perceived expertise of assistance upon stress, anxiety, and depression among parents of children with autism.","volume":"22","author":"CF Sharpley","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Intellect Dev Disabil"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00913802","article-title":"Maternal depression and its relationship to life stress, perceptions of child behavior problems, parenting behaviors and child conduct problems.","volume":"16","author":"C Webster-Stratton","year":"1988","journal-title":"J Abnormal Child Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30460-8","article-title":"The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence.","volume":"399","author":"SK Brooks","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2013.22","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder in parents and youth after health-related disasters.","volume":"7","author":"G Sprang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Disaster Med Public Health Prep"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.20555","article-title":"Associations among disaster exposure, intimate relationship adjustment, and PTSD symptoms: Can disaster exposure enhance a relationship?","volume":"238","author":"SJ Fredman","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Trauma Stress"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2016.04.013","article-title":"Weathering the storm? The impact of trauma on romantic relationships.","volume":"13","author":"EM Marshall","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref027","article-title":"Applying relationship science to evaluate how the COVID-19 pandemic may impact couples\u2019 relationships.","author":"PR Pietromonaco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am Psychol."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref028","article-title":"Female victimization and intimate partner violence after the May 12, 2008, Sichuan earthquake.","volume":"26","author":"KL Chan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Violence Vict"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2015.07.002","article-title":"Dyadic coping and relationship satisfaction: A meta-analysis.","volume":"42","author":"MK Falconier","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsaa093","article-title":"Parenting-related exhaustion during the Italian COVID-19 lockdown","volume":"45","author":"D Marchetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Pediatr Psychol."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-020-01037-x","article-title":"Initial challenges of caregiving during COVID-19: Caregiver burden, mental health, and the parent\u2013child relationship.","volume":"51","author":"BS Russell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry Hum Dev."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553880","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.553880","article-title":"Psychological well-being, marital satisfaction, and parental burnout in Iranian parents: The effect of home quarantine during COVID-19 outbreaks.","volume":"11","author":"SF Mousavi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psychol."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2020.104872","article-title":"Does culture matter social distancing under the COVID-19 pandemic?","volume":"130","author":"TLD Huynh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Saf Sci."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-020-0884-z","article-title":"Using social and behavioral science to support COVID-19 pandemic response.","volume":"4","author":"JJV Bavel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01713","article-title":"Parents stress and children\u2019s psychological problems in families facing the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy.","volume":"11","author":"M Spinelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psychol."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref036","unstructured":"Norwegian Institute of Public Health. Mental Illness Among Adults in Norway. Public Health Reports\u2013Health Status in Norway. 2016."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref037","article-title":"Physical distancing and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Factors associated with psychological symptoms and adherence to pandemic mitigation strategies.","author":"OV Ebrahimi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Sci."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0205662","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0205662","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Danish Parental Stress Scale: Rasch analysis in a sample of mothers with infants.","volume":"13","author":"M Pontoppidan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Plos One"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x","article-title":"The PHQ\u20109: Validity of a brief depression severity measure","volume":"16","author":"K Kroenke","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.genhosppsych.2005.07.003","article-title":"Validity of the Brief Patient Health Questionnaire Mood Scale (PHQ-9) in the general population.","volume":"28","author":"A Martin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gen Hosp Psychiatry."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.10.1092","article-title":"A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7","volume":"166","author":"RL Spitzer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1037\/1082-989X.7.2.147","article-title":"Missing data: Our view of the state of the art.","volume":"7","author":"JL Schafer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol Methods."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref043","first-page":"334","article-title":"Methods for analysis of pre-post data in clinical research: A comparison of five common methods","volume":"8","author":"NS O\u2019Connell","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Biom Biostat"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1177\/0049124104268644","article-title":"Multimodel inference: Understanding AIC and BIC in model selection.","volume":"33","author":"KP Burnham","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sociol Methods Res."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.5751\/ES-02282-130109","article-title":"Disaster preparation and recovery: Lessons from research on resilience in human development","volume":"13","author":"AS Masten","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ecology and Society"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1136\/oemed-2013-101891","article-title":"Health effects of employment: A systematic review of prospective studies.","volume":"71","author":"M van der Noordt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1093\/jurban\/78.3.458","article-title":"Social ties and mental health.","volume":"78","author":"I Kawachi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Urban Health."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref048","first-page":"1415","article-title":"Engaging in rather than disengaging from stress: Effective coping and perceived control.","volume":"7","author":"MTM Dijkstra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2005.05.002","article-title":"Family functioning, perceived control, and anxiety: A mediational model.","volume":"20","author":"NG Ballash","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-4560.1991.tb01832.x","article-title":"Perceived control and coping with stress: A developmental perspective.","volume":"47","author":"BE Compas","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Soc Issues"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref051","volume-title":"Stress, appraisal, and coping.","author":"RS Lazarus","year":"1984"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1002\/pon.1836","article-title":"Stress, coping and hope.","volume":"19","author":"S Folkman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psycho-Oncology"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1002\/cpp.488","article-title":"Resilience predicting psychiatric symptoms: A prospective study of protective factors and their role in adjustment to stressful life events.","volume":"13","author":"O Hjemdal","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Psychother"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.71.3.504","article-title":"Treatment of parental stress to enhance therapeutic change among children referred for aggressive and antisocial behavior.","volume":"71","author":"AE Kazdin","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Consult Clin Psychol."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-2134(96)00177-9","article-title":"Parenting stress and anger expression as predictors of child abuse potential.","volume":"21","author":"CM Rodriguez","year":"1997","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref056","first-page":"4","article-title":"Parenting stress and anger: The Hong Kong experience","author":"D. Lam","year":"2001","journal-title":"Child Fam Soc Work."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1177\/1077559507305993","article-title":"Stress and anger as contextual factors and preexisting cognitive schemas: Predicting parental child maltreatment risk.","volume":"12","author":"CM Rodriguez","year":"2007","journal-title":"Child Maltreat."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-006-9082-3","article-title":"Predicting change in parenting stress across early childhood: Child and maternal factors.","volume":"35","author":"AP Williford","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Abnorm Child Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref059","first-page":"1","article-title":"Struggling to breathe: A qualitative study of children\u2019s wellbeing during lockdown in Spain.","volume":"7","author":"NI Mondragon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol Health."},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1007.030703","article-title":"SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada.","volume":"10","author":"L Hawryluck","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1007\/s12160-010-9210-8","article-title":"Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms.","volume":"40","author":"LC Hawkley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann Behav Med"},{"key":"pone.0253087.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589127","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.589127","article-title":"Loneliness and social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic: Risk factors and associations with psychopathology.","volume":"11","author":"A Hoffart","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry."}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0253087","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]],"date-time":"2021-06-24T17:41:03Z","timestamp":1624556463000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0253087"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Xiangming","family":"Fang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0253087","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,24]]}}}