{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T22:41:25Z","timestamp":1790721685791,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,9]],"date-time":"2021-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625788800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIEHS\/Superfund Research Program","award":["P42 ES004699"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P42 ES004699"]}]},{"name":"NIH\/NIGMS","award":["T32GM113770"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32GM113770"]}]},{"name":"UC Davis Office of Research COVID-19 Accelerator Fund"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>COVID-19 serological test must have high sensitivity as well as specificity to rule out cross-reactivity with common coronaviruses (HCoVs). We have developed a quantitative multiplex test, measuring antibodies against spike (S) proteins of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and common human coronavirus strains (229E, NL63, OC43, HKU1), and nucleocapsid (N) protein of SARS-CoV viruses. Receptor binding domain of S protein of SARS-CoV-2 (S-RBD), and N protein, demonstrated sensitivity (94% and 92.5%, respectively) in COVID-19 patients (n = 53), with 98% specificity in non-COVID-19 respiratory-disease (n = 98), and healthy-controls (n = 129). Anti S-RBD and N antibodies appeared five to ten days post-onset of symptoms, peaking at approximately four weeks. The appearance of IgG and IgM coincided while IgG subtypes, IgG1 and IgG3 appeared soon after the total IgG; IgG2 and IgG4 remained undetectable. Several inflammatory cytokines\/chemokines were found to be elevated in many COVID-19 patients (e.g., Eotaxin, Gro-\u03b1, CXCL-10 (IP-10), RANTES (CCL5), IL-2R\u03b1, MCP-1, and SCGF-b); CXCL-10 was elevated in all. In contrast to antibody titers, levels of CXCL-10 decreased with the improvement in patient health suggesting it as a candidate for disease resolution. Importantly, anti-N antibodies appear before S-RBD and differentiate between vaccinated and infected people\u2014current vaccines (and several in the pipeline) are S protein-based.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0254367","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,9]],"date-time":"2021-07-09T18:17:56Z","timestamp":1625854676000},"page":"e0254367","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Immune response dynamics in COVID-19 patients to SARS-CoV-2 and other human coronaviruses"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3532-0261","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Resmi","family":"Ravindran","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cindy","family":"McReynolds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1408-8317","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Bruce D.","family":"Hammock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aamer","family":"Ikram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amna","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7973-790X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Adnan","family":"Bashir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tanzeel","family":"Zohra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1258-7369","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"W. 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