{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T16:53:15Z","timestamp":1781110395433,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]],"date-time":"2021-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1629244800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001858","name":"vinnova","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018-02007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018-02007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"kamprad foundation","award":["ref # 20180281"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ref # 20180281"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001862","name":"the swedish research council","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2015-01229"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2015-01229"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001862","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The correct communication of the severity of violence is essential in the context of legal trials, custody cases, support of victims, etc., for providing fair treatment. A narrator that communicates their experiences of interpersonal violence may rate the seriousness of the incident differently than a rater reading the narrator\u2019s text, suggesting that there exist <jats:italic>perceptual differences<\/jats:italic> (PD) in severity ratings between the narrator and the rater. We propose that these perceptual differences may depend on whether the narrative is based on physical or psychological violence, and on gender differences. Physical violence may be evaluated as more serious by the receiver of the narrative than by the narrator (<jats:italic>Calibration PD<\/jats:italic>), whereas the seriousness of psychological violence may be difficult to convey, leading to a discrepancy in the seriousness ratings between the narrator and the rater (<jats:italic>Accuracy PD<\/jats:italic>). In addition, gender stereotypes may influence the seriousness rating (<jats:italic>Gender PD<\/jats:italic>), resulting in violence against women being perceived as more serious than the same violence against men. These perceptual differences were investigated in 3 phases using a new experimental procedure. In Phase 1, 113 narrators provided descriptions and seriousness ratings of self-experienced physical and psychological violence in relationships. In Phase 2, 340 independent raters rated the seriousness of 10 randomly selected narrations from Phase 1. In Phase 3, the genders in the narrations were changed to the opposite gender, and seriousness ratings were collected from 340 different raters. Our results confirmed the hypothesized perceptual differences. Violence to male victims was considerably more likely to be seen as severe when the raters were misled to believe the victim was a woman. We propose that these data provide practical guidelines for how to deal with misinformation in the communication of violence. The data also show that mean values and the confidence of such severity ratings need to be adjusted for several factors, such as whether it is self-experienced or communicated, the type of violence, and the gender of the victims and raters.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0255785","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]],"date-time":"2021-08-18T17:58:18Z","timestamp":1629309498000},"page":"e0255785","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["What you say and what I hear\u2014Investigating differences in the perception of the severity of psychological and physical violence in intimate partner relationships"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2644-9626","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sverker","family":"Sikstr\u00f6m","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mats","family":"Dahl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hannah","family":"Lettmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Alexandersson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Schw\u00f6rer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lotta","family":"Stille","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oscar","family":"Kjell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u00c5se","family":"Innes-Ker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leonard","family":"Ngaosuvan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0255785.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2014.12.014","article-title":"Conjugal violence: a comparison of violence against men by women and women by men","volume":"31","author":"S. Thureau","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0255785.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1177\/0265407507087957","article-title":"You can degrade but you can\u2019t hit: Differences in perceptions of psychological versus physical aggression","volume":"25","author":"N. M. Capezza","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Social and Personal Relationships"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-018-9962-7","article-title":"Social Support and Self-Esteem Moderate the Relation Between Intimate Partner Violence and Depression and Anxiety Symptoms Among Portuguese Women","volume":"33","author":"E.C.V. Costa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Family Violence"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801218815776","article-title":"Understanding and addressing women\u2019s use of force in intimate relationships: a retrospective","volume":"25","author":"L.Y. Larance","year":"2019","journal-title":"Violence Against Women"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref005","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2020","journal-title":"Violence Info: Intimate Partner Violence"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0255785.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-014-9645-y","article-title":"Perceptions of psychological and physical aggression between heterosexual partners","volume":"30","author":"G. S. Hammock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Family Violence"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0255785.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1080\/15538605.2015.1068144","article-title":"Gender expression differences in same-sex intimate partner violence victimization, perpetration, and attitudes among LGBTQ college students","volume":"9","author":"L. E. Jacobson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"pone.0255785.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-012-0218-3","article-title":"Lessons from examining same-sex intimate partner violence","volume":"69","author":"N. L. Baker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref009","first-page":"373","article-title":"Perceptions of Harm, Criminality, and Law Enforcement Response: Comparing Violence by Men Against Women and Violence by Women Against Men, Victims & Offenders","volume":"133","author":"E. Allen","year":"2018"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0255785.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-845","article-title":"Self-reported exposure to intimate partner violence among women and men in Sweden: results from a population-based survey","volume":"13","author":"L. Nybergh","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"pone.0255785.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-013-0274-3","article-title":"Men\u2019s experience of psychological abuse: Conceptualization and measurement issues","volume":"69","author":"M. C. McHugh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-013-0264-5","article-title":"Validity concerns in the measurement of women\u2019s and men\u2019s report of intimate partner violence","volume":"69","author":"D. R. Follingstad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1037\/vio0000153","article-title":"Measurement invariance across sexes in intimate partner abuse research","volume":"8","author":"K.L. O\u2019Hara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychology of Violence"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0255785.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1891\/088667007781553937","article-title":"Men\u2019s recognition of violence against women and spousal abuse: Comparison of three groups of men","volume":"22","author":"C. Chamberland","year":"2007","journal-title":"Violence and Victims"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0255785.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1080\/10926771.2015.1049769","article-title":"The link between psychological abuse victimization and physical health in college students","volume":"24","author":"T. H. Witte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref016","author":"Office for National Statistics","year":"2019","journal-title":"Domestic abuse prevalence and trends, England and Wales: year ending March 2019"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref017","unstructured":"Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2020). Intimate Partner Violence: Fast Facts. Retrieved 2020 February 3 from https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/violenceprevention\/intimatepartnerviolence\/fastfact.html"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref018","author":"Northeastern University","year":"2008"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0255785.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.126.5.651","article-title":"Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: a meta-analytic review","volume":"126","author":"J. Archer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0255785.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1891\/1946-6560.1.2.152","article-title":"Gender symmetry or asymmetry in intimate partner victimization? Not an either\/or answer","volume":"1","author":"H. L. Kar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Partner Abuse"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0255785.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1080\/10926770903103081","article-title":"Why the overwhelming evidence on partner physical violence by women has not been perceived and is often denied","volume":"18","author":"M. A. Straus","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0255785.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1037\/a0021944","article-title":"A review of the evidence on the effects of intimate partner violence on men.","volume":"12","author":"A. A. Randle","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychology of Men & Masculinity"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0255785.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-3797(02)00514-7","article-title":"Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women","volume":"23","author":"A. L. Coker","year":"2002","journal-title":"American Journal of Preventive Medicine"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref024","author":"M Black","year":"2010","journal-title":"National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref025","first-page":"49","author":"M. A. Straus","year":"1990"},{"issue":"13","key":"pone.0255785.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260512436391","article-title":"Examining gender differences in the nature and context of intimate partner violence","volume":"27","author":"H. Cho","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Interpersonal Violence"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0255785.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1080\/10926770903231791","article-title":"Female perpetrators of intimate partner violence: Within-group heterogeneity, related psychopathology, and a review of current treatment with recommendations for the future","volume":"18","author":"J. Goldenson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0255785.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1080\/10926770903103099","article-title":"Women\u2019s use of intimate partner violence against men: Prevalence, implications, and consequences","volume":"18","author":"D. A. Hines","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0255785.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2012.06.005","article-title":"Perceptions of physical and psychological aggression in close relationships: A review","volume":"17","author":"C. Williams","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aggression and Violent Behavior"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0255785.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00978514","article-title":"The role of emotional abuse in physically abusive relationships","volume":"5","author":"D. R. Follingstad","year":"1990","journal-title":"Journal of Family Violence"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0255785.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1080\/10926790802278933","article-title":"Nonphysical abuse: Findings in domestic violence against older women study","volume":"8","author":"L. R. Seff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Emotional Abuse"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0255785.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.24.1.20","article-title":"Is psychological aggression as detrimental as physical aggression? The independent effects of psychological aggression on depression and anxiety symptoms","volume":"24","author":"E Lawrence","year":"2009","journal-title":"Violence and Victims"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0255785.ref033","first-page":"381","article-title":"Gender and cultural effects on perception of psychological violence in the partner","volume":"27","author":"C. D. Alvarez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psicothema"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0255785.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1080\/10926771.2014.933465","article-title":"Sex differences in response to victimization by an intimate partner: More stigmatization and less help-seeking among males","volume":"23","author":"S. Arnocky","journal-title":"Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0255785.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.26.3.347","article-title":"Intimate partner violence: The effect of gender and contextual factors on community perceptions of harm, and suggested victim and criminal justice responses","volume":"26","author":"S. M. Dennison","year":"2011","journal-title":"Violence and Victims"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0255785.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1177\/106082659400300203","article-title":"Riding the donkey backwards: Men as the unacceptable victims of marital violence","volume":"3","author":"M. J. George","year":"1994","journal-title":"The Journal of Men\u2019s Studies"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0255785.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2005.02.001","article-title":"The gender paradigm in domestic violence research and theory: Part 1\u2014The conflict of theory and data","volume":"10","author":"D. G. Dutton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aggression and Violent Behavior"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0255785.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1037\/1040-3590.6.4.284","article-title":"Guidelines, criteria, and rules of thumb for evaluating normed and standardized assessment instruments in psychology","volume":"6","author":"D. V. Cicchetti","year":"1994","journal-title":"Psychological Assessment"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0255785.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/pits.21733","article-title":"Gender differences in written expression curriculum-based measurement in third- through eight-grade students","volume":"51","author":"J. Y. Fearrington","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychology in the Schools"},{"key":"pone.0255785.ref040","article-title":"Mental health symptoms among male victims of partner violence","author":"M. Pr\u00f3spero","year":"2007","journal-title":"American Journal of Men\u2019s Health."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0255785.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801204271959","article-title":"Barriers to domestic violence help seeking: Implications for intervention","volume":"11","author":"M. Fugate","year":"2005","journal-title":"Violence Against Women"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0255785.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2524.2003.00423.x","article-title":"\u2018I could have just done with a little more help\u2019: an analysis of women\u2019s help seeking from health visitors in the context of domestic violence","volume":"11","author":"S. Peckover","year":"2003","journal-title":"Health & Social Care in the Community"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0255785","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]],"date-time":"2021-08-18T17:58:57Z","timestamp":1629309537000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0255785"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Astrid M.","family":"Kamperman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0255785","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,18]]}}}