{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T20:09:14Z","timestamp":1792613354614,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]],"date-time":"2021-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637193600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Disruptive Technology Innovation Fund","award":["DT -2018-0128"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DT -2018-0128"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation (tSCS) is a non-invasive modality in which electrodes can stimulate spinal circuitries and facilitate a motor response. This review aimed to evaluate the methodology of studies using tSCS to generate motor activity in persons with spinal cord injury (SCI) and to appraise the quality of included trials.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A systematic search for studies published until May 2021 was made of the following databases: EMBASE, Medline (Ovid) and Web of Science. Two reviewers independently screened the studies, extracted the data, and evaluated the quality of included trials. The electrical characteristics of stimulation were summarised to allow for comparison across studies. In addition, the surface electromyography (EMG) recording methods were evaluated.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A total of 3753 articles were initially screened, of which 25 met the criteria for inclusion. Studies were divided into those using tSCS for neurophysiological investigations of reflex responses (n = 9) and therapeutic investigations of motor recovery (n = 16). The overall quality of evidence was deemed to be poor-to-fair (10.5 \u00b1 4.9) based on the Downs and Black Quality Checklist criteria. The electrical characteristics were collated to establish the dosage range across stimulation trials. The methods employed by included studies relating to stimulation parameters and outcome measurement varied extensively, although some trends are beginning to appear in relation to electrode configuration and EMG outcomes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec004\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This review outlines the parameters currently employed for tSCS of the cervicothoracic and thoracolumbar regions to produce motor responses. However, to establish standardised procedures for neurophysiological assessments and therapeutic investigations of tSCS, further high-quality investigations are required, ideally utilizing consistent electrophysiological recording methods, and reporting common characteristics of the electrical stimulation administered.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0260166","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]],"date-time":"2021-11-18T13:53:09Z","timestamp":1637243589000},"page":"e0260166","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":74,"title":["Transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation and motor responses in individuals with spinal cord injury: A methodological review"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6765-1789","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Clare","family":"Taylor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Conor","family":"McHugh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6171-8751","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"David","family":"Mockler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Conor","family":"Minogue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8578-1245","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Richard B.","family":"Reilly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Neil","family":"Fleming","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0260166.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rehab.2015.05.003","article-title":"Transcutaneous electrical spinal-cord stimulation in humans.","volume":"58","author":"Y Gerasimenko","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annals of Physical & Rehabilitation Medicine."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0260166.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.20700","article-title":"Posterior root-muscle reflexes elicited by transcutaneous stimulation of the human lumbosacral cord","volume":"35","author":"K Minassian","year":"2007","journal-title":"Muscle and Nerve"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0260166.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2007.01.005","article-title":"Human lumbar cord circuitries can be activated by extrinsic tonic input to generate locomotor-like activity","volume":"26","author":"K Minassian","year":"2007","journal-title":"Human Movement Science"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0260166.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-1594.2008.00616.x","article-title":"Modification of reflex responses to lumbar posterior root stimulation by motor tasks in healthy subjects.","volume":"32","author":"US Hofstoetter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Artif Organs."},{"issue":"Pt 3","key":"pone.0260166.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2007.128447","article-title":"Modulation of multisegmental monosynaptic responses in a variety of leg muscles during walking and running in humans","volume":"582","author":"G Courtine","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"pone.0260166.ref006","article-title":"Effects of transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation on voluntary locomotor activity in an incomplete spinal cord injured individual.","volume":"58","author":"US Hofstoetter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed Tech (Berl)."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0260166.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-1594.2011.01213.x","article-title":"Can the human lumbar posterior columns be stimulated by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation? A modeling study.","volume":"35","author":"SM Danner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Artif Organs."},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2010.2054112","article-title":"Stimulation of the Human Lumbar Spinal Cord With Implanted and Surface Electrodes: A Computer Simulation Study","volume":"18","author":"J Ladenbauer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE Transactions on"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0260166.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.20700","article-title":"Posterior root-muscle reflexes elicited by transcutaneous stimulation of the human lumbosacral cord","volume":"35","author":"K Minassian","year":"2007","journal-title":"Muscle & nerve"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0260166.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1002\/bem.21808","article-title":"Neurophysiological characterization of transpinal evoked potentials in human leg muscles.","volume":"34","author":"M Knikou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioelectromagnetics."},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0260166.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e76940","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0076940","article-title":"Cervicothoracic multisegmental transpinal evoked potentials in humans.","volume":"8","author":"J Einhorn","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0260166.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1111\/aor.12616","article-title":"Multi-Electrode Array for Transcutaneous Lumbar Posterior Root Stimulation.","volume":"39","author":"M Krenn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Artificial organs."},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0260166.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00489.2013","article-title":"Neuromodulation of evoked muscle potentials induced by epidural spinal-cord stimulation in paralyzed individuals","volume":"111","author":"DG Sayenko","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0260166.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2808","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00316.2009","article-title":"Phase-dependent modulation of percutaneously elicited multisegmental muscle responses after spinal cord injury","volume":"103","author":"CJ Dy","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0260166.ref015","first-page":"32","article-title":"Evaluation of motor neuron excitability in lumbosacral spinal cord: Transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation as compared to H-reflex","volume":"42","author":"DV Emeliannikov","year":"2016","journal-title":"Fiziologiia Cheloveka"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0192013","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0192013","article-title":"Common neural structures activated by epidural and transcutaneous lumbar spinal cord stimulation: Elicitation of posterior root-muscle reflexes.","volume":"13","author":"US Hofstoetter","year":"2018","journal-title":"PloS one."},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0260166.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0227057","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227057","article-title":"Recovery cycles of posterior root-muscle reflexes evoked by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation and of the H reflex in individuals with intact and injured spinal cord.","volume":"14","author":"US Hofstoetter","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0260166.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E176","DOI":"10.1111\/aor.12615","article-title":"Augmentation of Voluntary Locomotor Activity by Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation in Motor-Incomplete Spinal Cord-Injured Individuals.","volume":"39","author":"US Hofstoetter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Artif Organs."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0260166.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968315591706","article-title":"Spinal Rhythm Generation by Step-Induced Feedback and Transcutaneous Posterior Root Stimulation in Complete Spinal Cord-Injured Individuals","volume":"30","author":"K Minassian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurorehabil Neural Repair"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0260166.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0213696","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0213696","article-title":"Transspinal stimulation increases motoneuron output of multiple segments in human spinal cord injury.","volume":"14","author":"LM Murray","year":"2019","journal-title":"PloS one."},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2015.01.041","article-title":"Post-activation depression in the human soleus muscle using peripheral nerve and transcutaneous spinal stimulation","volume":"589","author":"JC Andrews","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroscience Letters"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0260166.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1672","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00802.2018","article-title":"On the reflex mechanisms of cervical transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation in human subjects","volume":"121","author":"M Milosevic","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0260166.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2019.11.056","article-title":"Posteroanterior cervical transcutaneous spinal stimulation targets ventral and dorsal nerve roots.","volume":"131","author":"YK Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016064","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ab5e09","article-title":"Muscle activation pattern elicited through transcutaneous stimulation near the cervical spinal cord","volume":"17","author":"Y Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neural Eng"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00552","article-title":"Supraspinal and Afferent Signaling Facilitate Spinal Sensorimotor Network Excitability After Discomplete Spinal Cord Injury: A Case Report.","volume":"14","author":"A Militskova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Neurosci."},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0260166.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2020.03.021","article-title":"Interlimb conditioning of lumbosacral spinally evoked motor responses after spinal cord injury.","volume":"131","author":"DA Atkinson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol."},{"issue":"Pt 5","key":"pone.0260166.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1394","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awu038","article-title":"Altering spinal cord excitability enables voluntary movements after chronic complete paralysis in humans","volume":"137","author":"CA Angeli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0260166.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.3727\/096368915X686904","article-title":"Electrical stimulation and motor recovery","volume":"24","author":"W Young","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell transplantation"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135052","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2020.135052","article-title":"Modulation of soleus H-reflex excitability following cervical transspinal conditioning stimulation in humans","volume":"732","author":"MA Islam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2017.10.004","article-title":"And yet it moves: Recovery of volitional control after spinal cord injury","volume":"160","author":"G Taccola","year":"2018","journal-title":"Progress in neurobiology"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0260166.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1805","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612822666161214144655","article-title":"Probing the Human Spinal Locomotor Circuits by Phasic Step-Induced Feedback and by Tonic Electrical and Pharmacological Neuromodulation.","volume":"23","author":"US Hofstoetter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Pharm Des."},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0260166.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858417699790","article-title":"The Human Central Pattern Generator for Locomotion: Does It Exist and Contribute to Walking?","volume":"23","author":"K Minassian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0260166.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1906","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0953-816x.2001.01813.x","article-title":"Neuronal coordination of arm and leg movements during human locomotion","volume":"14","author":"V Dietz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur J Neurosci"},{"issue":"512","key":"pone.0260166.ref034","article-title":"Propriospinal Neurons: Essential Elements of Locomotor Control in the Intact and Possibly the Injured Spinal Cord.","volume":"13","author":"AM Laliberte","year":"2019","journal-title":"Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(96)00286-2","article-title":"Synchronicity of nociceptive and non-nociceptive adjacent neurons in the spinal dorsal horn of the rat: stimulus-induced plasticity","volume":"76","author":"AA Eblen-Zajjur","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0260166.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2018.2834339","article-title":"Transcutaneous Electrical Spinal Stimulation Promotes Long-Term Recovery of Upper Extremity Function in Chronic Tetraplegia","volume":"26","author":"F Inanici","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng"},{"issue":"21","key":"pone.0260166.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2540","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2017.5584","article-title":"Trunk Stability Enabled by Noninvasive Spinal Electrical Stimulation after Spinal Cord Injury.","volume":"35","author":"M Rath","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00416","article-title":"Exoskeleton Walk Training in Paralyzed Individuals Benefits From Transcutaneous Lumbar Cord Tonic Electrical Stimulation.","volume":"14","author":"EY Shapkova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Neurosci."},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0260166.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rehab.2015.04.003","article-title":"Neuroprosthetic technologies to augment the impact of neurorehabilitation after spinal cord injury.","volume":"58","author":"R van den Brand","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annals of physical and rehabilitation medicine."},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0260166.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51051","article-title":"Reversing 21 years of chronic paralysis via non-invasive spinal cord neuromodulation: a case study","volume":"7","author":"M Alam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annals of clinical and translational neurology"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00333","article-title":"Weight Bearing Over-ground Stepping in an Exoskeleton with Non-invasive Spinal Cord Neuromodulation after Motor Complete Paraplegia.","volume":"11","author":"P Gad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Neurosci."},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0260166.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2018.5956","article-title":"Self-Assisted Standing Enabled by Non-Invasive Spinal Stimulation after Spinal Cord Injury.","volume":"36","author":"DG Sayenko","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma."},{"issue":"18","key":"pone.0260166.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2017.5461","article-title":"Non-Invasive Activation of Cervical Spinal Networks after Severe Paralysis.","volume":"35","author":"P Gad","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15546","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-33123-5","article-title":"Engaging cervical spinal circuitry with non-invasive spinal stimulation and buspirone to restore hand function in chronic motor complete patients.","volume":"8","author":"Y Freyvert","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2021.3049133","article-title":"Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation Restores Hand and Arm Function after Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"29","author":"F Inanici","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968319893298","article-title":"Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation and Motor Rehabilitation in Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review","volume":"34","author":"A Meg\u00eda Garc\u00eda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurorehabil Neural Repair"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref047","article-title":"Epidural spinal cord stimulation for motor recovery in spinal cord injury: A systematic review.","author":"C McHugh","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroRehabilitation."},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578559","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.578559","article-title":"Use of Surface EMG in Clinical Rehabilitation of Individuals With SCI: Barriers and Future Considerations.","volume":"11","author":"R Pilkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Frontiers in neurology"},{"issue":"283","key":"pone.0260166.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660583","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.660583","article-title":"A Novel Technique to Reject Artifact Components for Surface EMG Signals Recorded During Walking With Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation: A Pilot Study.","volume":"15","author":"M Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00433.2019","article-title":"Transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation of the cervical cord modulates lumbar networks","volume":"123","author":"TS Barss","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"13","key":"pone.0260166.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2633","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2374-19.2020","article-title":"Cortical and Subcortical Effects of Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation in Humans with Tetraplegia","volume":"40","author":"FD Benavides","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2019.09.013","article-title":"Using EMG to deliver lumbar dynamic electrical stimulation to facilitate cortico-spinal excitability","volume":"13","author":"G Taccola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Stimulation."},{"issue":"7729","key":"pone.0260166.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0649-2","article-title":"Targeted neurotechnology restores walking in humans with spinal cord injury","volume":"563","author":"FB Wagner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0260166.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.13.2.135","article-title":"The use of surface electromyography in biomechanics","volume":"13","author":"CJ De Luca","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of applied biomechanics"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2020.102438","article-title":"Consensus for experimental design in electromyography (CEDE) project: Amplitude normalization matrix.","volume":"53","author":"M Besomi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2010.73","article-title":"Long-lasting involuntary motor activity after spinal cord injury.","volume":"49","author":"WB McKay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Spinal cord"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/2046-4053-4-1","article-title":"Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement.","volume":"4","author":"D Moher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Syst Rev"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0260166.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.52.6.377","article-title":"The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and non-randomised studies of health care interventions.","volume":"52","author":"SH Downs","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1310\/sci1301-32","article-title":"A systematic review of the efficacy of gait rehabilitation strategies for spinal cord injury.","volume":"13","author":"T Lam","year":"2007","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0260166.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0149024","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0149024","article-title":"Strategies for Rapid Muscle Fatigue Reduction during FES Exercise in Individuals with Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review.","volume":"11","author":"MO Ibitoye","year":"2016","journal-title":"PloS one."},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0260166.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2012.78","article-title":"Systematic review of the methodological quality and outcome measures utilized in exercise interventions for adults with spinal cord injury.","volume":"50","author":"SR Silverman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1310\/sci1301-1","article-title":"Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation Evidence: Methods of the SCIRE Systematic Review.","volume":"13","author":"JJ Eng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil."},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0260166.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1177\/0193945902250039","article-title":"Assessing the methodological quality of nonrandomized intervention studies.","volume":"25","author":"LD Saunders","year":"2003","journal-title":"West J Nurs Res"},{"issue":"27","key":"pone.0260166.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"iii","DOI":"10.3310\/hta7270","article-title":"Evaluating non-randomised intervention studies.","volume":"7","author":"JJ Deeks","year":"2003","journal-title":"Health Technol Assess"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0260166.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03193146","article-title":"G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences.","volume":"39","author":"F Faul","year":"2007","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref066","article-title":"Contributions of the Cybathlon championship to the literature on functional electrical stimulation cycling among individuals with spinal cord injury: A bibliometric review.","author":"PNF Hamdan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Sport and Health Science"},{"issue":"24","key":"pone.0260166.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1968","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2015.4008","article-title":"Noninvasive Reactivation of Motor Descending Control after Paralysis.","volume":"32","author":"YP Gerasimenko","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma."},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref068","first-page":"12","article-title":"Tapping the Neural Circuitry: Surface Spinal Stimulation in Spinal Cord Injury: a Case Report.","author":"P Bedi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Exercise Science and Physiotherapy"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0260166.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2765","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9092765","article-title":"The Effects of Adding Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation (tSCS) to Sit-To-Stand Training in People with Spinal Cord Injury: A Pilot Study.","volume":"9","author":"Y Al\u2019Joboori","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Medicine."},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0260166.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3541","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9113541","article-title":"Immediate Effects of Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation on Motor Function in Chronic, Sensorimotor Incomplete Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"9","author":"C Meyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of clinical medicine"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0260166.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3167","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2020.3048592","article-title":"Cervical Spinal Cord Transcutaneous Stimulation Improves Upper Extremity and Hand Function in People With Complete Tetraplegia: A Case Study","volume":"28","author":"F Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620414","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.620414","article-title":"Neuronal Actions of Transspinal Stimulation on Locomotor Networks and Reflex Excitability During Walking in Humans With and Without Spinal Cord Injury.","volume":"15","author":"MA Islam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci."},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00607","article-title":"A Comparison of FES and SCS for Neuroplastic Recovery After SCI: Historical Perspectives and Future Directions.","volume":"11","author":"LD Duffell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Frontiers in neurology"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0260166.ref074","article-title":"Modified Pulse Shapes for Effective Neural Stimulation.","volume":"4","author":"L Hofmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Frontiers in Neuroengineering."},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0260166.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2111","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00454.2019","article-title":"Preferential activation of spinal sensorimotor networks via lateralized transcutaneous spinal stimulation in neurologically intact humans","volume":"122","author":"JS Calvert","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"pone.0260166.ref076","article-title":"Selectivity of transcutaneous stimulation of lumbar posterior roots at different spinal levels in humans.","volume":"58","author":"M Krenn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed Tech (Berl)."},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0260166.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01128.2014","article-title":"Spinal segment-specific transcutaneous stimulation differentially shapes activation pattern among motor pools in humans","volume":"118","author":"DG Sayenko","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Physiology"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0260166.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2011.03.002","article-title":"A methodological reappraisal of non invasive high voltage electrical stimulation of lumbosacral nerve roots.","volume":"122","author":"W Troni","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"issue":"13","key":"pone.0260166.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-199807010-00005","article-title":"The variation of position of the conus medullaris in an adult population. A magnetic resonance imaging study.","volume":"23","author":"A Saifuddin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)."},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0260166.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2012.04.034","article-title":"Basic concepts of activity-based interventions for improved recovery of motor function after spinal cord injury","volume":"93","author":"RR Roy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0260166.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci9120333","article-title":"Muscle-Specific Modulation of Spinal Reflexes in Lower-Limb Muscles during Action Observation with and without Motor Imagery of Walking","volume":"9","author":"N Kaneko","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2009.03.006","article-title":"Spinal reflex in human lower leg muscles evoked by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation","volume":"180","author":"K Kitano","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Neurosci Methods"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0260166.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2011.166","article-title":"Cervical multisegmental motor responses in healthy subjects.","volume":"50","author":"MA Sabbahi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0260166.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1179\/2045772313Y.0000000157","article-title":"Similarities and differences in cervical and thoracolumbar multisegmental motor responses and the combined use for testing spinal circuitries","volume":"37","author":"MA Sabbahi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref085","first-page":"1114","article-title":"Effects of anode position on the responses elicited by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation","volume":"2017","author":"Y Masugi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0260166.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0125609","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125609","article-title":"Dynamic Impedance Model of the Skin-Electrode Interface for Transcutaneous Electrical Stimulation.","volume":"10","author":"JL Vargas Luna","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref087","volume-title":"Therapeutic Electrophysical Agents: Evidence Behind Practice:","author":"A B\u00e9langer","year":"2010"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref088","unstructured":"Administation UFaD. Guidance document for powered muscle stimulator 501 (k) s. In: FDA, editor. Washington1999."},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref089","volume-title":"Clinical Electrotherapy:","author":"DP Currier","year":"1999"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0260166.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14397","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.14397","article-title":"The relationship between maximum tolerance and motor activation during transcutaneous spinal stimulation is unaffected by the carrier frequency or vibration.","volume":"8","author":"GA Manson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiological Reports."},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0260166.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1053\/apmr.2002.33116","article-title":"Optimal frequencies for electric stimulation using medium-frequency alternating current","volume":"83","author":"AR Ward","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2016.05.047","article-title":"Effects of movement-related afferent inputs on spinal reflexes evoked by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation during robot-assisted passive stepping","volume":"627","author":"Y Masugi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuroscience Letters"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147479","article-title":"Body position influences which neural structures are recruited by lumbar transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation.","volume":"11","author":"SM Danner","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0260166.ref094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/aen295","article-title":"Changing body position alters the location of the spinal cord within the vertebral canal: a magnetic resonance imaging study","volume":"101","author":"MR Ranger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br J Anaesth"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0260166.ref095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S1050-6411(00)00027-4","article-title":"Development of recommendations for SEMG sensors and sensor placement procedures","volume":"10","author":"HJ Hermens","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Electromyogr Kinesiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2005.862694","article-title":"Modulation effects of epidural spinal cord stimulation on muscle activities during walking","volume":"14","author":"H Huang","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0260166.ref097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0175-7","article-title":"Neuromodulation of lumbosacral spinal networks enables independent stepping after complete paraplegia","volume":"24","author":"ML Gill","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature Medicine"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0260166.ref098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4598(199608)19:8<966::AID-MUS5>3.0.CO;2-6","article-title":"Motor control after spinal cord injury: assessment using surface EMG","volume":"19","author":"AM Sherwood","year":"1996","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0260166.ref099","first-page":"49","article-title":"Exercise research issues in the spinal cord injured population.","volume":"33","author":"KA Ginis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exerc Sport Sci Rev"},{"key":"pone.0260166.ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1038\/sc.2012.78","article-title":"Systematic review of the methodological quality and outcome measures utilized in exercise interventions for adults with spinal cord injury.","volume":"50","author":"S Wilbanks","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spinal cord"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0260166","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]],"date-time":"2021-11-18T13:54:33Z","timestamp":1637243673000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0260166"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Peter","family":"Schwenkreis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]]},"references-count":100,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0260166","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]]}}}